Religion, when military colonization needed it to further use as a tool to invade a colony, has been a tool; 2333BC Gojoseon Religion was as is; Gojoseon-Joseon-People of One Nation united to preserve 한식- 한글- 한복- 공부;
부모님을 위해 효도하는 자식
자식을 위해 희생하는 부모님
그러니; 자신을위하여-제사로 역사를기역하며 백성이 있어야 나라가있는법.
Korean Religion( origin of Korean Ancestry, Korean Music, Korean Culture, Korean Food, Korean Laws, Korean way of life based on free will/ living peacefully within nature, Korean Language Linguistic Dialects, Korean Writing History, Korean Instruments, Korean History) since 2333BC; emphasizes Learning-Education, Marrying of One Male respecting 제사 his ancestry from physically living 3generations of wisdom reminding one of grandparents to paternal-maternal account passed to sons and daughters of ancestral roots; Wisdom of male marrying one partner female converted from different tribe to bear an offspring carrying paternal surname while wife keeping own surname from maternal parent.
The wisdom of one set of parents.
Wisdom of Education.
Responsibility of Adult.
Responsibility of Child.
Respecting Elderly.
Nurturing Offspring thru education,housing, hygiene, food, clothing, etiquette-moral teachings, own labour to afford living costs.
막걸리-Korean Rice Beer Wine.
소주-Korean Vodka
담배-Cigarett imported from Nippon Meiji after 7 years war with 이순신 장군 Korean Navy General of Turtle Shaped Ships defending Korean Peninsula for 7years after attack by Meiji Nippon.
Anti Drug laws
Anti incest laws.
Anti Child labour laws.
Free Education for kids.
Free will based lifestyle.
Class exams for poor to escape poverty thru education-academic achievement.
Political representation from various providences of Korean Empire adviaing Korean Emperor and Korean Emperess.
All before 1908 Fall of Korean Empire.
Before fall of Korean Monarchy 대한제국(조선)-aka Korean Empire in 1908 ; Korean 2333BC Religion was truly admirable. Punishment and consequences followed corruptions.
2333BC 고조선; Gojoseon started by Grandfather 환인 lineage to his Son 환웅.
환웅 interracially married Bear-Totem-Beliving Female Converted thru process of 100days in a cave only eating garlic( base for Kimchi and rice) and 쑥(안동 공부역사 가르침) while among the two( Bear and Tiger) that came to 환웅 begging to become human ( join Korean Tribe Empire)- Tiger ( Ancient India-Hindu-Buddhism) departed without staying 100days in the cave.
Narrative is that Bear ( Rus Viking of Siberia) and Tiger (Ancient India) approached in person to Korean Empire ancestors before 2333BC. It is by then that Military (Body;Physical DNA)tool RELiGion (Mind-Belief;Linguistic-Literacy collection of Bibliographical Account of Ancestry Rememberance) spread to alliance different countries.
2333BC 고조선 GoJoseon Religion coexisted if not existed far independently earlier than any other religions. Traits of Korean GoJoseon Religion since 2333BC are uniquely integrated into Korean Ancestry ;
1. Korean Gojoseon since 2333BC came from three generations of male ancestry.
환인 (할아버지)descended from Ice Age Inuit Era. 환웅(아바이) witnessed Volcanic Eruptions to end of Ice Age to Flooding and Rain reshaping of Mongolian haven of Agricuoturally rich state to barren dusty desert like oasis of descendents staying true to anestral teachings. 환웅(아바이-아버지) and Bear converted Female ( narrative of Bear Nation Believer converting to Korean Empire by 100days in cave eating garlic and 쑥) gave birth to 2333BC 고조선 (아들) 's multiple tribes United as One Tribe without force. United by Free Will.
2. Korean Ancestry from 2333BC emphasizes free will.
3. Korean Ancestry far earlier existed before 501BC 유교 Confucius. Northern Korean Peninsula Goryo Saram stayed influenced to alliance treaty benefits of Confucism. However, Southern Peninsula buffsred in gratitude to Northern Korean Brothers fending off invasion colonization threat in the North enoyed pampered Peaceful existance. Luxury of Agricultural advancements by creation of agricultural tools, laws, education where Ancient Chinese Characters were borrowed and rearranged to best express Korean Dialects-Linguistics original to Korean Peninsula -Korean Monarchy as old as times.
4. Korean Dishes(Rice -Kimchi before and after intro of chili peppers), Korean Monarch Clothing, Korean Paper made from Hemp, Korean Clothing made from Hemp, Korean Language, Korean Writing, Korean Music, Korean Dances, Korean Drums, Korean Instruments, Korean 제사 to Remember and to Respect its ancestors, Korean Grave Sites wearing White to the funerals.
5. Korean Empire governed for the welfare of its people. One's countrymen exists therefore exists one's nation- a country- that is represented by a Monarch-Emperor best representing pure race of its people visible in the face. Emperor is not for him or her self. Emperor of Korean Dynasty was a mirror to represent the features of its people. The model representing its population. The Face. Korean Emperor and Emperess depicted its people. Slanted Eyes- Silky black hair- Korean Language-Korean Literacy- Korean DNA.
6. Korean Monarchy (One race Mirrored Model Representation of population)differed from Politics ( Military, Law Enforcement Policing of internal local , state-providence, to country borders with neighboring nations-colonies-empires of different lifestyles and different languages).
7. Korean ancestry back to 2333BC and even before then has preached;
Respecting elderly ( existed even before 501 BC Confucius-Confucism depicting Chinese).
Parents sacrificing for the welfare of children who represented the future continuation of one's customs and way of Korean lifestyle( educating/feeding/housing/handmade clothing children thru selfless labor).
8. Hygiene differed in Korea from Europe. Ancient GoJoseon was largely Rice Cultivation varying from providences making most of its own agricuktural or fishery abundance. Korean Ancestry was united Tribes of Free Will of people Who were free to coexist with common language and common traditional clothing yet with uniquely own providential diets based on local nature. Those near water incorporated fish diets. Those away from water incorporated local farm crops.
No one was forced into one dietary rules that a Religion Governed by different Countries outside Korean Borders ( Judaism restricts pork but drinks wine made from grapes and sugar, Arab -Islam twins Judaism in refusing pork but prohibits alcohol, Christians-Viking Rus eat all, Catholics fast and eats all but does not eat meat on Saturdays, India's Hinduism prohibits Beef-preaches Vegan diet); Korean Religion that is basically ancestry biblography collection passed down from ancestors respected and remembered throught the generations preached free will and free diet based on local farmed good uniquely providential depending on geographical uniqueness.
So eating mainly rice and steamed and seasoned side dishes of veggies, cooked fish, cooked Beef , Pork, Poultry( Chicken,Goat); tooth brushing with salt and cloth was the 'living off of the local land' philosophy and wisdom of Korean Ancestors as far back as 2333BC or older.
Since coexisting of its social structure based on Academics and Labor off of one's local land without colonizing other countries for food or wealth; the respect of Parents and Caregiving of Children who are schooled to carry on Family's Ancestral Heritage; The Importance of Marriage between man and women from different providence to exclude cases of incest to promote bealthier babies being born to mothers in Korean Civilization; there were practice of natural birth without c-section( knifing a human body).
There were taboo against wh*ring to keep family values of one mom-one dad- birth of child knowing birth parents. Practice of adopting existed with honor for those who coukd not have children.
Bathing and washing clothing came in forms of privacy. And daily washing of face and brushing teeth laundry of clothing and bath was as needed. People were too busy being farmers and fishermen and craftsmen. So at end of day's work there were washing up before dinner. Absolute cleanliness of one's home.
There were no std- o diseases until Foreigners entered Korean Society.
There were no birth control
There was innate work, study, hygiene, covered clothing, respect to elders, caregiving nurturing of children, responsibilites of adults, responsibilities of children, patriotism, Emperor prioritizing welfare of its people, academic-military-martial arts-scientific-literacy prosperity of Korean Ancestry within Ancient Empire Monarchy rooted into Korean Ancestry until war threats and foreign invasions plagued Korean Empire repeatedly throughout its history.
Rare were cases Greek and Romans accounted in Viking -European-Scandanavian-Arab-Middle East Existance in Collection of Biograhies of Ancestors depicting Diary collection of their times (aka European Bible; Adam and Eve, Noah, Ark, Moses DOES NOT reflect Korean Ancestry of 2333BC GoJoseon different from Rice and Kimchi based Ancestry talking differently and living differently since Ice Age Inuit Era).
2333BC GoJoseon( 고조선) establisher was born as third generation Son male ( 환인 grandfather-환웅 father) born from Father who took in by free willed Bear-Tribe-Female-eating garlic and 쑥 for set law stating 100days in a cave. A male taking in a female (who converts-follows customs-language-laws of the male by free will) of different tribe is rooted into Korean Anceatry as old as 2333BC.
.........
한국말; Korean Language (Literacy 한글 역사 and Language여러 한국말 사투리)
since 2333BC is Korean Religion.
In comparion to 2333BC Korean Religion based on being Korean by free will( Eating Korean Dishes, Speaking Korean, Respecting Korean Monarchy and Ancestry);
Korean Religion of 2333BC of Free Will conversion to Accepting Korean Food(garlic Kimchi) and Korean Laws( 100days in cave 쑥-To follow Korean Culture-Speak Korean-Adopt to live as Korean;쑥originated and uniquly grown in Korean Peninsula) ;
Korean 2333BC Religion existed before 501 BC Confucism-Sinto-Dao-Chinese.
Korean 2333BC Religion existed before Hindu-Zoro-Mazda-Buddbism-India.
Korean 2333BC Religion existed before Northern Israel Hebrew to Southern Judea Ashkenazi Germanic Yiddish.
Korean 2333BC Religion existed before Viking Bodyguard Rus Czar Khan Greek Orthodox.
Korean 2333BC Religion existed before Greek to Roman Catholicism Latin-Spain-Etruscan Italy-Gaul Frank Germanic Irish Celtic French.
Korean 2333BC Religion differs from spread of Viking Rus-Caucasian -India-Arab-Middle East -Europe Author Biography Collection of Diaries based on non-Native-Korean Ancestry!
Bible means collection of biblio- biographies of diaries of authors depicting their version of thier times. Korean Monarchy Empire since 2333BC Korean Religion has different methodology than European Bible ( Collection of Biographies told in diaries of authors).
Adam and Eve being naked ( Greek and Roman Statues of naked individuals)until snake( Reference to India-Arab Snake Culture) .
Korean Anceatry refers to Coexisting at times of European Adam and Eve era were Ice Age Siberian Inuit Era coexisting with Greenland-Iceland Viking era.
Korean Ancestry beginning differs from Adam and Eve( Viking-Scandanavian Sweden Denmark Finland to Ancient GreekAdam and Eve of ancient Egypt Africa Arabia- being naked until eating apple by Snake ( India-Arab-Middle East).
Adam and Eve depiction of European collection of ancestry collection refers to DNA of nonKorean Ancestry. And the Noah's Ark depiction of Flooding where end of Ice Age and Ancient Greek era opens up narrative to Ancient Roman Colonization carrying on thru birth of various religions ( mind instead of body-military colonization) .
Korean Ancestors did not colonize in search for food nor wealth.
Korean ancestors made best of its agricultural, fisbery, hunting eateries....even when facing famine and weather drought; Korean Ancestors did not look to colonizing and stealing from another country- that is until end of ww2-end of Korean Monarch -End of Korean Empire 대한제국 고종왕 이씨. 김씨 고려 사람 expelled in Northern Korea taken by Kim Clan trying in their own militarily culture to maintain Korean Customs, Korean Art, Korean Language that 1908-1945 faced erasure by Nippon Meiji salvaged what Kim Clan could salvage from loss from 1945 to modern (2014) day North Korea.
North Koreans are not born evil. They are not monsters from birth.
The very existance of North Korea is an example of human nature after facing years of Bullying and Abuse trying to survive among society of Bullies-Back Stabbers-Abusers who smile but deceit behind one's back all the while acting as a fake friend using Religion( Roots to superiority of one country over its colonized followers) to control emotion and mind allegiance.
..........
2333BC 고조선 Gojoseon was in its self a Religion of Korean Ancestry.
Korean Empire started 3 generation rule.
환인(Grandfather) from North; ancestry root to Ice Age Siberian Inuit Tribes at beginning of times.
End of Ice Age-End of Volcanic Eruptions-Beginning of Rain Flooding that changed the oncw farming haven of Mongolia into a dust non farming state...
The human migration south for food and survival led 환웅(Son) to beg for permission henwas granted to come down to 백두산 (Liaw Ancient Han Dynasty equally neighboring united Gojoseon Tribed Dynasty) BaekDoo Mountain Geography....And the 2333BC establishment of Korean Dynasty based on 환웅 marrying female bear converted by 100days in the cave eating only garlic(Kimchi) and 쑥(안동 공부의역사). Between a Bear and Tiger; Tiger(India-Hindu-Buddhism-Zoro-Mazda) refused and Bear succeeded. 환웅 (son) and Bear converted female gave birth to 2333 BC (grandson that unified tribes to equally exist as ancestors to Korean Peninsula) established Gojoseon Empire! Lesson as early as 2333BC is that A Male fathers a child from converted female from another tribe in order to prevent incest! Korean Empire coexisted as long as human existance....Korean Empire was never Colonized...rather stronger military dynasties taxed alliance treaty to coexist with Korean Dynasty as far back as 2333BC! The existance of Joseon Korean Literacy-Korean Ancestry is in its own self a Religion. A religion is an ancestry root of a particular narrative of its authors( Linguistics and Literacy of its people). Bible in western European Term is A Collection of Biblio-Biographies-Biblio account of their times' - Diary account of collection of Authors passed down from generations.....2333BC GoJoseon had its own Collection of Biographies passed down from its generations....Lesser in population...Lesser but Mighty Military Power of its own Gojoseon Empire borrowed Ancient Chinese Characters* ( note China made ilup of 51 tribes did not get established until end of 1908-1945 Soviet Jewish and Korean Empire horrors in Europe and in Korean Peninsula; USA Prez Taft and Roosevelt sided with Meiji Nippon to colonize Pbilipines for USA in exchange to support Nippon Meiji colonization of Korean Peninsula!!!! Just as UK-France-Dutch-Portuguese-Spanish-Estruscan Catholic Italy colonization Vietnam France wanted Shanghai-to Hong Kong in exchange for establishment of Ching Dynasty conspiring to destroy neighbor Joseon-DaeHanJaeGook대한제국 Korean Dynasty for the creation og Ching Dynasty to Republic of China at end of WW2:::World War includes Jewish Diaspora and Korean Diaspora destroyed militarily between 1908-1945 WORLD WAR : REFER TO NAOMI KLEIN'S Theory).
Yakutsk School Number 16 (Russian: Якутская городская школа №16) is a state-run school in Yakutsk, Sakha Republic. It was set up in the 1940s. As of 2005, it had roughly 700 students.[1] It is a UNESCO Associated School. The principal is Aleksandr Dubinin, who has worked in the school for fourteen years; his wife, Roza Hanbeevna Dubinina, is also a teacher there. The school attracted negative attention in 2008 due to a video which a student uploaded to a video-sharing site during the summer holiday, which insulted several teachers there.[2]
School 16 is one of two schools in the city which teach Korean as a foreign language, the other being the Sakha-Korean School. They began teaching the language, along with taekwondo, in the 1990s. As of 2005, they had 127 students studying the language. The program has expanded due to the enthusiasm of Dubinina, herself a descendant of Korean immigrants to Russia and a former teacher at the Sakha-Korean School. In 2005, a delegation from South Korea visited the school and gave them Korean clothing and school bags as a gift, and promised to provide further funding for textbooks and for study trips to Seoul for the best students.[3] There are plans to employ a further teacher from South Korea to assist in the programme as well.[1]
Among other subjects, the school offers Korean as a second language, taught by the native Korean teachers; teaching begins in the 5th grade, with three contact hours per week.[6] It is one of two schools in Yakutsk which offers Korean to young students, the other being School #16.[13] The teachers experience some culture shock at the different style of education, including the relative lack of age-based hierarchy at the school.[4] The school also introduces other aspects of Korean cultureto students, such as taekwondo, Korean music and Korean cuisine.[3
The origins of the school go back to May 1994; a South Korean ethnographer doing research on the indigenous peoples of Siberia had been in discussions with the government of the Sakha Republic to set up a Korean-language school, and began to look for teachers in South Korea. Gang Deok-su, a professor of Russian at theHankuk University of Foreign Studies and head of the Sakha-Korea Friendship association, agreed to assist.[3][8] The Yakutsk Korean Association, founded in 1989, had previously set up Sunday schools for the teaching of the Korean language, but due to the increasing demand for specialists of the language, powerful supporters threw their weight behind the move to set up a full-time school, including president of the Sakha Republic Mikhail Nikolayev. Then-head of the Yakutsk Department of Education Evgeniya Mikhailova provided early local leadership for the project; the Sakha Republic government has continued to provide financial support to the school as part of its wider plan to improve foreign-language education in the republic.[3][9]Other early local supporters of the school included head of the Institute for Advanced Education Studies[10] Olga Chorosova and chairwoman of the Yakutsk Korean Association Vera Shamayeva.[9]
In 2006, the school established a branch in Aldansky Ulus.[11]
Roughly 250 students have graduated from the school since its founding. Its fifteenth anniversary, in December 2009, was celebrated in a ceremony attended by Mikhailova (who by then had risen to the position of vice-president of the Sakha Republic), minister of internal affairs Georgy Nikonov, and the South Korean consul-general of Irkutsk, Choi Seok-in.[12]
Sakha-Korean SchoolKorean nameHangul사하·한국학교[7]Hanja사하·韓國學校TranscriptionsRevised RomanizationSaha-Hanguk HakkyoMcCune–ReischauerSaha-Han'guk HakkyoRussian nameRussianСаха-корейская школа[4]RomanizationSakha-koreyskaya shkola
The Sakha-Korean School is a school in Yakutsk, Sakha Republic. It was founded in 1994[2] and in 2008 it enrolled roughly 280 students at the primary and middle-school levels (up from roughly 200 in 2002).[2][6]
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakha-Korean_School
Orochs (Russian О́рочи), Orochons, or Orochis (self-designation: Nani) are a small people[clarification needed] of Russia that speak the Oroch (Orochon of the Southern group of Tungusic languages. According to the 2002 census there were 686 Orochs in Russia.
Orochs traditionally settled in the southern part of the Khabarovsk Krai, Russia and on the Amur and Kopp rivers. In the 19th century, some of them migrated to Sakhalin. In the early 1930s, the Orochi National District was created, but was cancelled shortly thereafter "due to lack of native population".
Because the people never had a written language, they were educated in the Russian language. Their language, Oroch, the Russian Orthodox Church, and Buddhism.
LanguagesTraditionally Bukhori (Judeo-Tajik), Tajik, Russian, Hebrew (Israel), English (USA, Canada, UK, and Australia), and German (Austria and Germany) spoken in addition and to a lesser extent, Uzbek for those who remain in Uzbekistan.ReligionJudaism, Islam (see Chala), AgnosticismRelated ethnic groups
Other Jewish groups
(Mizrahi, Sephardi, Ashkenazi, etc.)
Tajiks
Bukharan Jews, also Bukharian Jews or Bukhari Jews, (Persian: یهودی بخارایی Yahūde-ye Bukhārāī ; Russian: Бухарские евреи Bukharskie evrei ; Hebrew: בוכרים Bukharim and Bukhori Cyrillic: яҳудиёни бухороӣ[citation needed] Yahudiyoni bukhoroī(Bukharan Jews) or яҳудиёни Бухоро[citation needed] Yahudiyoni Bukhoro (Jews of Bukhara), Bukhori Hebrew Script: יהודיאני בוכאראי and יהודיאני בוכארי), also called theBinai Israel,[1] are Jews from Central Asia who speak Bukhori, a dialect of the Tajik-Persian language. Their name comes from the former Central Asian Emirate of Bukhara, which once had a sizable Jewish community. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the great majority have emigrated to Israel or to the United States(especially Forest Hills, New York), while others have emigrated to Europe orAustralia.[2]
The Bukharan Jews are considered one of the oldest ethno-religious groups of Central Asia and over the years they have developed their own distinct culture. Throughout the years, Jews from other Eastern countries such as Iraq, Iran, Yemen, and Morocco migrated into Central Asia (usually by taking the Silk Road).[citation needed]
In 1865, Russian troops took over Tashkent, and there was a large influx of Jews to the newly created Turkestan Region. From 1876 to 1916, Jews were free to practiceJudaism. Dozens of Bukharan Jews held prestigious jobs in medicine, law, and government, and many Jews prospered. Many Bukharan Jews became successful and well-respected actors, artists, dancers, musicians, singers, film producers, and sportsmen. Several Bukharan entertainers became artists of merit and gained the title "People's Artist of Uzbekistan," "People's Artist of Tajikistan," and even (in the Soviet era) "People's Artist of the Soviet Union." Jews succeeded in the world of sport also, with several Bukharan Jews in Uzbekistan becoming renowned boxers and winning many medals for the country.[13]
With the establishment of Soviet rule over the territory in 1917, Jewish life seriously deteriorated.[citation needed] Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, thousands of Jews, fleeing religious oppression, confiscation of property, arrests, and repressions, fled to Palestine.[citation needed] In Central Asia, the community attempted to preserve their traditions while displaying loyalty to the government. World War II and the Holocaustbrought a lot of Ashkenazi Jewish refugees from the European regions of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe through Uzbekistan. Starting in 1972, one of the largest Bukharan Jewish emigrations in history occurred as the Jews of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan emigrated to Israel and the United States, due to looser restrictions on immigration. In the late 1980s to the early 1990s, almost all of the remaining Bukharan Jews left Central Asia for the United States, Israel, Europe, or Australia in the last mass emigration of Bukharan Jews from their resident lands.
After 1991
With the disintegration of the Soviet Union and foundation of the independent Republic of Uzbekistan in 1991, some feared growth of nationalistic policies in the country. The resurgence of Islamic fundamentalism in Uzbekistan and Tajikistanprompted an increase in the level of emigration of Jews (both Bukharan andAshkenazi). Before the collapse of the USSR, there were 45,000 Bukharan Jews in Central Asia.[15]
Today, there are about 150,000 Bukharan Jews in Israel (mainly in the Tel Aviv metropolitan area including the neighborhoods of Tel Kabir, Shapira, Kiryat Shalom, HaTikvah and cities like Or Yehuda, Ramla, and Holon) and 60,000 in the United States (especially Queens—a borough of New York that is widely is known as the "melting pot" of the United States due to its ethnic diversity)—with smaller communities in the USA like Phoenix, South Florida, Atlanta, San Diego, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Denver. Only a few thousand still remain in Uzbekistan. About 500 live in Canada (mainly Toronto, Ontario and Montreal, Quebec). Almost no Bukharan Jews remain in Tajikistan (compared to the 1989 Jewish population of 15,000 in Tajikistan).
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Red_Book_of_the_Peoples_of_the_Russian_Empire
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oroch_people
Okhoru Pavilion in Geoncheongjeon,Gyeongbokgung where the Empress was killed.
The Eulmi Incident (을미사변, 乙未事變) is the term used for the assassination of Empress Myeongseong, which occurred in the early hours of 8 October 1895 at Okho-ru (옥호루, 玉壺樓) in the Geoncheonggung (건청궁, 乾淸宮), which was the rear private royal residence inside Gyeongbokgung Palace.[25]
In the early hours of 8 October, Japanese agents under Miura Goro carried out the assassination. Miura had orchestrated this incident with Okamoto Ryūnosuke (岡本柳之助), Sugimura Fukashi (杉村 濬), Kunitomo Shigeaki (國友重章), Sase Kumadestu (佐瀨熊鐵), Nakamura Tateo (中村楯雄), Hirayama Iwahiko (平山岩彦), and over 50 other Japanese men. They were said to have also collaborated with the pro-Japanese officers Lieutenant Colonel U Beom-seon (우범선, 禹範善) and Lieutenant Colonel Yi Du-hwang (이두황, 李斗璜) both Battalion Commanders in the "Hullyeondae," a Japanese trained Regiment of the Royal Guards.[25] The 1,000 Korean soldiers of the Hullyeondae, led by Lieutenant Colonel U Beom-seon[26] (우범선, 禹範善) and Lieutenant Colonel Yi Du-hwang (이두황, 李斗璜) had surrounded and opened the gates of the Palace, allowing the Japanese ronin to enter the inner sanctum.
In front of Gwanghwamun, the Hullyeondae Soldiers led by Lieutenant Colonel U Beom-seon[27] battled the Korean Royal Guards led by Hong Gye-hun (홍계훈, 洪啓薰) and An Gyeong-su (안경수, 安駉壽).[25] Hong Gye-hun and Minister Yi Gyeong-jik (이경직, 李耕稙) were subsequently killed in battle, allowing the Ronin assassins to proceed to Okhoru (옥호루, 玉壺樓) in Geoncheonggung and killed Empress Myeongseong. The corpse of the Empress was then burned and buried.[25]
Historian of Japan Peter Duus has called this assassination a "hideous event, crudely conceived and brutally executed."[28] Donald Keene, who calls the queen "an arrogant and corrupt woman", says that the way in which she was murdered was nonetheless "unspeakably barbaric."[29]
An eye-witness account
Alleged killers of the Empress posing in front of Hanseong sinbo building in Seoul, Korea. (1895)
Sunjong, the crown prince, reported that he saw Korean troops led by Lieutenant colonel Woo Beom-seon (禹範善 우범선; father of Woo Jang-choon (禹長春 우장춘), an agricultural scientist) at the assassination spot, and accused General Woo as the "Foe of Mother". In addition to his accusation, Sunjong sent two Korean assassins to kill Lieutenant Colonel Woo, an effort that succeeded in Hiroshima, Japan, in 1903. By then, Lieutenant colonel Woo had married a Japanese woman, and had sired Woo Jang-choon (禹長春 우장춘).
In 2005, professor Kim Rekho (김려춘; 金麗春) of the Russian Academy of Sciencescame across a written account of the incident by a Russian architect Afanasy Seredin-Sabatin (Афанасий Иванович Середин-Сабатин) in the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire (Архив внешней политики Российской империи; AVPRI).[30] Seredin-Sabatin was in the service of the Korean government, working along with the American general William McEntyre Dye who was also under contract to the Korean government. In April, Kim made a request to the Myongji University (명지대학교; 明知大學校) Library LG Collection to make the document public. On 11 May 2005 the document was made public.
Almost five years prior to the document's release in South Korea, a translated copy was already in circulation in the United States, having been released by the Center for Korean Research of Columbia University on 6 October 1995 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Eulmi Incident.[31]
In the account, Seredin-Sabatin recorded:
“The courtyard where the Queen (Consort)'s wing was located was filled with Japanese, perhaps as many as 20 or 25 men. They were dressed in peculiar gowns and were armed with sabres, some of which were openly visible. ... While some Japanese troops were rummaging around in every corner of the palace and in the various annexes, others burst into the queen's wing and threw themselves upon the women they found there. ... I ... continued to observe the Japanese turning things inside out in the queen's wing. Two Japanese grabbed one of the court ladies, pulled her out of the house, and ran down the stairs dragging her along behind them. ... Moreover one of the Japanese repeatedly asked me in English, "Where is the queen? Point the queen out to us!" ... While passing by the main Throne Hall, I noticed that it was surrounded shoulder to shoulder by a wall of Japanese soldiers and officers, and Korean mandarins, but what was happening there was unknown to me.”
[32]
Involved parties
In Japan, fifty-six men were charged, but all were acquitted by the Hiroshima court due to a lack of evidence.[33]
They included below;[34]
Viscount Miura Gorō, Japanese legation minister.Okamoto Ryūnosuke (岡本柳之助), a legation official[35] and former Japanese Army officerHozumi Torakurō, Kokubun Shōtarō, Hagiwara Shujiro, Japanese legation officials[35]Sugimura Fukashi (杉村 濬),[36] a second Secretary of the Japanese Legation[37]Adachi Kenzo, editor of Japanese newspaper in Korea, Kanjō Shimpō[38] (漢城新報, also called Hanseong Shinbo in Korean), a general of Imperial Japanese ArmyKunitomo Shigeaki (國友重章),[39] one of the original Seikyōsha (Society for Political Education) members[40]Shiba Shirō[36](柴四朗), private secretary to the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce of Japan, and writer who studied political economy at The Wharton School and Harvard University[41]Sase Kumadestu (佐瀨熊鐵), a physician[41]Terasaki Yasukichi (寺崎泰吉), a medicine peddler[42]Nakamura Tateo (中村楯雄)Horiguchi Kumaichi (堀口 九萬一)Ieiri Kakitsu (家入嘉吉)Kikuchi Kenjō (菊池 謙讓)Hirayama Iwahiko (平山岩彦)Ogihara Hidejiro (荻原秀次郎)Kobayakawa Hideo (小早川秀雄), editor in chief of Kanjō Shimpō[43]Sasaki MasayukiIsujuka Eijoh[44]
and others
In Korea, King Gojong declared that the following were the Eulmi Four Traitors in 11 February 1896:
Jo Hui-yeon (趙羲淵 조희연)Yoo Gil-joon (兪吉濬 유길준)Kim Hong-jip (金弘集 김홍집)Jeong Byeong-ha (鄭秉夏 정병하)Aftermath
The Gabo Reform and the assassination of Myeongseong generated anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea; also, it caused some Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, to form over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on the Korean peninsula.
After the assassination, Gojong and the Crown Prince (later Emperor Sunjong) fled for refuge to the Russian legation in 11 February 1896. Also, Gojong declared theEulmi Four Traitors. However, In 1897, Gojong, yielding to rising pressure from both overseas and the demands of the Independence Association-led public opinion, returned to Gyeongungung (modern-day Deoksugung). There, he proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire. However, after Japan's victories in the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars, Korea succumbed to Japanese colonial rule between 1910 and 1945.
Funeral procession and tomb
1895 Funeral of Empress Myeongseong
In 1897, King Gojong, with Russian support, regained his throne, and spent "a fortune" to have his beloved Queen Min (Empress Myeongseong) remains properly honored and entombed. Her mourning procession included 5,000 soldiers, 650 police, 4,000 lanterns, hundreds of scrolls honoring her, and giant wooden horses intended for her use in the afterlife. The honors King Gojong placed on Queen Min (Empress Myeongseong) for her funeral was meant as a statement to her diplomatic and heroic endeavors for Korea against the invading Japanese, as well as a statement of his own undying love for her. Queen Min's (Empress Myeongseong) recovered remains are in her tomb located in Namyangju, Gyeonggi, South Korea.[45][full citation needed]
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong#The_Eulmi_Incident
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Sunjong_of_the_Korean_Empire
http://www.academia.edu/3555906/%EA%B9%80_%EA%B2%8C%EB%A5%B4%EB%A7%8C._%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4_%EC%82%AC%EB%9E%8C%EC%9D%98_%EA%B4%80%ED%95%9C_%EC%82%AC%EB%A3%8C%ED%8E%B8%EC%B0%AC%EC%A0%81_%EA%B3%A0%EC%B0%B01887
인구조사에 따르면 중앙아시아에 고려 사람은 24명이 살았다. 연해주의 고려 사람들을 일본 스파이로 본 스탈린의 명령으로 강제로 중앙아시아에 던져진 고려 사람들은 카자흐스탄 10만, 우즈베키스탄 20만이었다. 대다수가 농민인 고려 사람들은 질 좋은 조선 쌀 재배에 큰 성공을 거두었다. 김만삼은 1942년 카자흐스탄 집단농장에서 쌀 소출에서 세계기록을 세웠으며 고려 사람들은 목화, 밀, 사탕수수, 감자, 수박에서도 모두 수확 기록을 깨뜨렸다. 뿐만 아니라 고려 사람들은 부지런하고 교육열이 높아 좋은 러시아 학교에서 다른 민족보다 두각을 나타냈고 사회 각 분야에 널리 진출했다. 중앙아시아에서 고려인들의 성공은 여러 민족들 가운데 가장 두드러졌고 일본, 중국, 미국의 교포들도 이루지 못한 놀라운 현상이다.
고려인들은 중앙아시아 여러 나라들에서 부총리, 국회부의장, 장관, 차관, 헌법재판소장, 시장 등을 배출했고 소련의 영웅, 사회주의 영웅, 국가의 주요 상 수상자들을 냈다. 소련과 공화국들의 과학아카데미 회원이 3명이고 대학 총장, 부총장, 교장, 교수, 연구소장이 여럿이며 박사만 해도 700명이나 된다. 대기업 사장, 은행 총재, 농장장, 국가올림픽위원장, 각종 체육회장들도 눈에 띈다. 저명한 스포츠 챔피언, 작가, 작곡가, 화가, 오페라 가수, 발레 무용수들도 많다. 비탈리 펜(변, Vitaliy Fen) 주한 우즈베키스탄 대사도 고려 사람이다.
고려 사람들 사회가 마냥 밝은 것만은 아니다. 인구가 계속 줄고 있어 우즈베키스탄의 고려 사람은 15만이 안 된다. 우즈백 사람들은 대여섯을 낳는데 고려 사람들은 하나만 낳는다. 중앙아시아는 독립 이후 민족주의가 강해져 고려 사람들의 신분 상승도 어렵게 되었다. 제2의 고향 연해주로 돌아간 사람들도 있다. 농촌에는 노인들만 남고 젊은이들은 러시아, 미국, 캐나다, 유럽, 한국으로 빠져 나간다. 고려 사람 사회는 아직도 공동체 성격이 강하지만 젊은 세대는 개인주의 경향이 커져 러시아, 유럽 사람들과 편하게 지내게 되었다. 한국의 놀라운 경제발전은 고려 사람들의 지위 향상에 도움이 되었다. 한국 기업의 진출도 눈부시다. 냉장고, 가전제품, 휴대전화. 자동차는 한국 제품이 휩쓸고 있다. 우즈베키스탄에서 한국의 영향은 러시아, 미국, 이슬람권. EU 다음으로 높다. 한국 기업이 중앙아시아에서 자리 잡는 데는 고려 사람들의 도움이 컸다고 한다. 그런데 이제는 현지인들을 많이 채용하면서 고려 사람들은 쓰지 않는다니 문제다.
고려 사람들은 뿌리를 중요하게 여기지만 중앙아시아를 영원히 살 조국으로 생각한다. 2차 대전이 끝나자 고향으로 모두 돌아간 타타르족과는 좋은 대조다. 젊은 사람들은 자신을 러시아 사람으로 여기는 경향도 있다. 고려 사람들의 2중정체성은 이해해야 한다. 한국대사관, 한국 기업, 한국 종교인들은 고려 사람들이 한국사람 같이 행동하기를 기대하고 강요하기까지 한다고 한 박사는 불만을 털어 놓는다. 안 될 일이다. 같은 핏줄이라도 백년 이상을 다른 환경에서 살았는데 어떻게 같을 수 있을까 ? 우리는 고려 사람들의 ‘유라시아 고려문화’를 이해하려고 노력해야 한다. 21년 전 한 박사는 한반도 통일 문제를 과도기의 변증법 이론의 관점에서 다룬 글을 남북 대사관에 보냈다가 남에서는 친북, 북에서는 친남이라고 거부당했다는 얘기를 썼다. 그는 남북이 승자 - 패자 패러다임을 버려야 한다고 하면서 전 세계에 흩어진 7백만 디아스포라(diaspora, 이산동포들)가 통일협상을 중재할 수 있다고 주장한다. http://m.kyosu.net/articleView.html?idxno=24824Denis Yuryevich Ten (Денис Юрьевич Тен; born 13 June 1993) is a Kazakhstanifigure skater. He is the 2014 Olympic bronze medalist, the 2013 World silver medalist, the 2011 Asian Winter Games champion, and a three-time national champion of Kazakhstan.
At the 2008–09 ISU Junior Grand Prix event in Belarus, Ten became the first skater from Kazakhstan to win an International Skating Union competition. He is also the first to stand on the podium at the World Championships or Olympics. Ten's other accomplishments include qualifying two spots for his country in the men's event at the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics. He is a member of the Astana Presidential Sports Club.[1]
Personal lifeEdit
Denis Ten was born on 13 June 1993 in Almaty, Kazakhstan.[2] He is a member of theKorean minority in Kazakhstan. His great-great-grandfather, Min Keung-ho,[3][4] was aKorean independence fighter general during the time of the Korean Empire when Korea fought for independence from Japan.
Ten attended music school for five years and competed as part of a choir.[5] In 2002, his team won the silver medal at the World Choir Games, held in Busan, South Korea.[5] This was Ten's first trip to that country.[4] He also tried taekwando, karate, swimming and acrobatics.[6]
Ten moved with his mother to Moscow, Russia in 2004 while his father and older brother, Alexei, remained in Kazakhstan.[4][5] Ten already knew Russian — it is co-official in Kazakhstan and Ten's first language.[5] In 2010, he moved with his mother to California.[7]
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Righteous_ArmyRighteous ArmyHangul의병Hanja義兵Revised RomanizationUibyeongMcCune–ReischauerŬibyŏng
Righteous armies, sometimes called irregular armies or militias, have appeared several times in Korean history, when the national armies were in need of assistance.
The first righteous armies emerged during the Khitan invasions of Korea and theMongol invasions of Korea. They subsequently rose up during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), the first and second Manchu invasions, and during the Japanese occupation and preceding events.
During the long period of Japanese invasion and occupation from 1890 to 1945, the disbanded imperial guard, and Confucian scholars, as well as farmers, formed over 60 successive righteous armies to fight for Korean freedom on the Korean peninsula. These were preceded by the Donghak movement, and succeeded by various Korean independence movements in the 1920s and beyond, which declared Korean independence from Japanese occupation.
The righteous armies were an irregular military that fought the Japanese army that twice invaded Korea during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). Righteous armies were most active in the Jeolla Province in the southwestern area of Korea. Righteous armies included peasants, scholars, former government officials, and Buddhist warrior monks as well. Righteous armies were important during the war because a significant portion of the expected government organized resistance had been destroyed in Gyeongsang and Chungcheong Provinces in the south by the force of Japanese arms at the outset. The natural defenders had been stripped away and the residue had been called north to help protect the fleeing king. Moreover, many of the district officers had obtained their commissions not through merit, but by bribery or influence, and were essentially incompetent or cowards. This was highlighted in their performance and in the performance of their units in the early days of the conflict. This kind of resistance was totally unexpected by the Japanese invaders. In Japanese warfare, when the leaders fall, civilians would simply submit. However, after they learned that people were forming organized resistance against them, they were shocked. Japanese strategies were based on the premise that the people of Korea would submit to them and assist their supply line by giving their food. However, this was not the case and righteous armies continued to interrupt the Japanese supply line. People's voluntary resistance movements were one of the major reasons why Japanese invasion was not successful.
In Gyeongsang provinceHapcheon (June 6, 1592) : Kim Myeon and Jeong In-hong against Mori TerumotoChogye (June 7, 1592) : Son In-gap against Mori TerumotoUcheokhyeon (July 10, 1592) : Kim Myeon and Kim Seong-il against Kobayakawa Takakage (July 27, 1592) : Gwon Ung-su and Park Jin against Fukushima MasanoriUiryeong : Gwak Jae-u against Kobayakawa TakakageHyeonpung : Gwak Jae-u against Hashiba HidekatsuYeongsan : Gwak Jae-u against Hashiba HidekatsuIn Jeolla provinceDamyang (June 25, 1592) : Go Gyeong-myeong and Yang Dae-park : Kim Cheon-il : Kim Deok-nyeongIn Chungcheong provinceGeumsan (July 9, 1592) : Go Gyeong-myeong and Gwak Yong against Kobayakawa TakakageOkcheon : Jo HeonGeumsan : Yeong-gyu and Jo Heon : Yeong-gyu and Jo HeonIn Gangwon province
See also: Kangwon Campaign
In Hwanghae provinceYeonan : Yi Jeong-amIn Pyeongan provinceMountain Myohyang : SeosanIn Hamgyeong provinceGilju : Jeong Mun-bu
Late Joseon dynasty period Korean nationalism outgrew the unplanned, spontaneous, and disorganized Donghak movement, and became more violent as the Japanese occupation began a brutal regime throughout the Korean peninsula and pursued repressive policies against the Korean people.
The Japanese occupiers fought with state-of-the-art cannons, machine guns, repeaters, mounted cavalry reconnaissance units in the mountains, and an entrenched class of informers and criminals developed over the previous decade before the battles began.
Koreans fought with antique muzzle-loaders, staves and iron bars, and their hands. There were rare instances of modern weapons, and a few enemy weapons captured. Europe, particularly Britain and Germany, and the western allies were on the side of Japan, profiting from huge arms and naval sales, and did much to prevent Korean forces from being resupplied.
For at least 13 years after 1905, small irregular forces, often led by regular army commanders, fought skirmishes and battles throughout Korea against Japanese police, armies, and underworld mercenaries who functioned to support Japanese corporations looting Korea, and as well armed Japanese settlers who seized Korean farms and land. In one period, according to Japanese records in Boto Tobatsu-shi(Annals of the Subjugation of the Insurgent), between October 1907 and April 1908, over 1,908 attacks were made by the Korean people against the invaders.
While most attacks were done using available weapons, and bare hands, international arms dealers profited. Arms dealers and governments who supplied the Korean resistance included British arms dealers, Chinese arms dealers from across the Yalu and in coastal waters; German arms dealers provided Mausers, and a French cruiser in September 1908, resupplied Korean Catholic armies in payment for gold at exorbitant prices. Smugglers from Japan as well supplied Murada weapons, with links to anti-Meiji forces who hoped to see Ito and his clan toppled in the wake of disasters in the Japanese economy.
After the Russian revolution, some weaponry was diverted from the White forces into what is now North Korea, and supporters built there, however this was sparse and while white Russian mercenaries fought against the Japanese, this was a minor element.
During the Righteous Armies Wars
The Righteous Army was formed by Yu In-seok and other Confucian scholars during the Peasant Wars. Its ranks swelled after the Queen's murder by the Japanese troops and Koreans. Under the leadership of Min Jeong-sik, Choe Ik-hyeon and Shin Dol-seok, the Righteous Army attacked the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japanese bureaucrats in the provinces of Gangwon, Chungcheong, Jeolla andGyeongsang.
Choe Ik-hyeon was captured by the Japanese and taken to Tsushima Island where he went on hunger strike and finally died as a martyr in 1906. Shin Dol-seok, an uneducated peasant commanded over 3,000 troops. Among the troops were former government soldiers, poor peasants, fishermen, tiger hunters, miners, merchants, and laborers.
In 1907, the Righteous Army under the command of Yi In-yeong massed 10,000 troops to liberate Seoul and defeat the Japanese. The Army came within 12 km of Seoul but could not withstand the Japanese counter-offensive. The Righteous Army was no match for two infantry divisions of 20,000 Japanese soldiers backed by warships moored near Inchon.
The Righteous Army retreated from Seoul and the war went on for two more years. Over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were killed and more than 37,000 were wounded in combat. Unable to fight the Japanese army head-on, the Righteous Army split into small bands of partisans to carry on the War of Liberation in China, Siberia and the Baekdu Mountains in Korea. The Japanese troops first quashed the Peasant Army and then disbanded what remained of the government army. Many of the surviving guerrilla and anti-Japanese government troops fled to Manchuria andSiberia and carried on their fight.
Armies and orders of battle
Of the sixty righteous armies, the list and descriptions below follow what is known of the names of the more well known armies and their sequential appearance in combat; individual generals and named figures are given larger biographies on separate articles which cite more historical background.
In 1895: Righteous army of EulmiYi So-ungNo Eung-gyuGi U-manYi Gang-nyeonIn 1905: Righteous army of EulsaChoe Ik-hyeonMin Jong-sikShin Dol-seokJeong Yong-giYi Han-guIm Byeong-chanIn 1907: Righteous army of JeongmiHong Beom-doCha DoseonKim Su-minMin Geung-ho13 province alliance righteous army in 1908Commander in chief : Yi In-yeongCommander : Heo WiRepresentative of Gangwon : Min Geung-hoRepresentative of ChungcheongRepresentative of Gyeongsang : Park Jeong-binRepresentative of Gyeonggi, Hwanghae : Gwon Jung-huiRepresentative of Pyeongan : Bang In-gwanRepresentative of North Hamgyeong : Jeong Bong-junRepresentative of Jeolla : Mun Tae-su
Shin Dol-seok (hangul: 신돌석) was a Korean general of the Righteous Armies who fought against the Japanese army in the early 20th century. He was born inYeonghae (now Yeongdeok), North Gyeongsang Province.[1]
Because of the Eulmi Incident, in which a Korean empress was killed by the Japanese army, and an ordinance prohibiting topknot hairstyles, anti-Japanese sentiment was active. Armies were raised against Japan from every corner of the country. At that time, 19-year-old Shin Dol-seok participated in the anti-Japanese movement raising 100 soldiers. In 1905, the Eulsa Treaty (a.k.a. Japan-Korea Protectorate Treaty) made a pact between Korea and Japan. Due to the unequal and compulsory nature of the treaty, many people, including Shin Dol-seok, struggled against the Japanese army. In 1907, Korea signed another unequal treaty with Japan, at which time the previously irregular Righteous Armies finally formed a union against the Japanese army. However, other generals ruled Shin Dol-seok out of the union because he was a commoner. In the Korea of that time, it was not easy for a commoner to lead an army because of the strong adherence to the status system. However, his successful leadership using guerrilla tactics led many people to welcome his army. In 1962, he was awarded for his distinguished services by the Korean government.[2]
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong#The_Eulmi_IncidentEmpress MyeongseongEmpress of Korea (posthumously)Regent of Korea1 November 1873 – 1 July 1894
6 July 1895 – 10 October 1895SpouseKing Gojong of Joseona son
a daughter
Emperor Sunjong of the Korean Empire
a son
a sonPosthumous nameShort: Empress Myeongseong
*명성황후
*明成皇后
*Myeongseong Hwanghu
Full: The Filial and Benevolent, the Origin of Holiness, the Proper in Changes, the Uniter of Heaven, the Immensely Meritorious, and the Sincerely Virtuous Grand Empress Consort Myeongseong
*효자원성정화합천홍공성덕명성태황후
*孝慈元聖正化合天洪功誠德明成太皇后
*Hyoja Wonsŏng Jŏnghwa Hapchŏn Honggong Sŏngdŏk Myŏngsŏng TaehwanghuMin Chi-rokLady Hanchang of Yi clanBorn19 October 1851
Yeoju County, Gyeonggi Province, JoseonDied8 October 1895 (aged 43)
Okhoru Pavilion, Geoncheonggung, Gyeongbok Palace, Seoul, Joseon DynastyBurialHongneungKorean nameHangul명성황후Hanja明成皇后Revised RomanizationMyeongseong HwanghuMcCune–ReischauerMyŏngsŏng Hwanghu
Empress Myeongseong (19 October 1851 – 8 October 1895), also known as Queen Min, was the first official wife of King Gojong, the twenty-sixth king of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. In 1902, she received the posthumous name Hyoja Wonsŏng Jŏnghwa Hapchŏn Honggong Sŏngdŏk Myŏngsŏng Taehwanghu (Korean Hangul: 효자원성정화합천홍공성덕명성태황후, Hanja: 孝慈元聖正化合天洪功誠德明成太皇后),[1]often abbreviated as Myŏngsŏng Hwanghu (Hangul: 명성황후, Hanja: 明成皇后), meaning Empress Myeongseong.
The Meiji government of Japan considered her an obstacle against its overseas expansion.[2] Efforts to remove her from the political arena, orchestrated through failed rebellions prompted by the father of King Gojong, Heungseon Daewongun (an influential regent working with the Japanese), compelled the Empress to take a harsher stand against Japanese influence.[3][bare URL]
After Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, Queen Min advocated stronger ties between Korea and Russia in an attempt to block Japanese influence in Korea, which was represented by Daewongun. Miura Gorō, the Japanese Minister to Korea at that time and a retired army lieutenant-general, backed the faction headed by the Daewongun, whom he considered to be more sympathetic to Japanese interests.
In the early morning of 8 October 1895, Hullyeondae Regiment, loyal to Daewongun, attacked the Gyeongbok Palace, overpowering its Royal Guards. The Hullyeondaeofficers, led by Lieutenant Colonel Woos Beomseon, an ardent supporter ofDaewongun, then allowed a group of Japanese ronins, specifically recruited for this purpose to infiltrate inside the Gyeongbok Palace, allegedly under orders from Miura Gorō. Upon entering the Queen's Quarters (Okhoru Pavilion), the assassins "killed three court [women] suspected of being the queen. When they confirmed that one of them was the Empress, they burned the corpse in a pine forest in front of the Okhoru Pavilion, and then dispersed the ashes."[4] She was 43 years old.[5]
The assassination of the Korean Empress ignited outrage among other foreign powers.[6] To appease growing international criticism, the Japanese government "recalled Miura and placed him under a staged trial at the Hiroshima District Court, while the military personnel involved were tried at a military court. All were given the verdict of not-guilty on the grounds of insufficient evidence."[5]
However, the assassination promoted anti-Japanese sentiments in Korea with "Short Hair Act Order" (단발령, 斷髮令), and some Koreans created the Eulmi righteous armyand actively set up protests nationwide.[7] Following the queen's assassination, King Gojong and the crown prince (later Emperor Sunjong) fled to the Russian legation in 1896. This led to the general repeal of the Gabo Reforms, which was controlled by Japanese influence.[7] In October 1897, King Gojong returned to Gyeongungung (modern-day Deoksugung). There, he proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire.[7]
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ai_of_Tang
Emperor Ai of TangBirth and deathBirth dateSeptember 27, 892[1][2]Death dateMarch 26, 908[2][3]NamesFamily nameLǐ (李)Given nameInitially Zuò (祚),
later Zhù (柷) (changed 904)ReignDates of reign (1st)September 26, 904[2][4]–May 12, 907[2][3]DynastyTangEra nameTiānyòu (天祐) (inherited from Emperor Zhaozong)Era datesMay 28, 904[2][5]–May 12, 907[6]Temple nameJǐngzōng (景宗) (not commonly used)Posthumous name
(short)Emperor Ai (哀皇帝) (given by Later Liang) or
Emperor Zhaoxuan (昭宣皇帝) (given by Later Tang)Posthumous name:
(full)Emperor Zhaoxuan Guanglie Xiao (昭宣光烈孝皇帝) (given byLater Tang)
Emperor Ai of Tang (Chinese: 唐帝) (892–908), also known as Emperor Zhaoxuan(昭宣帝), born Li Zuo (Chinese: 李), later known as Li Zhu (Chinese: 李柷), was the last emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. He reigned — as but a puppet ruler — from 904 to 907. Emperor Ai was the son of Emperor Zhaozong.
Emperor Ai ascended the throne at the age of 11 after his father, the Emperor Zhaozong, was assassinated on the orders of the paramount warlord Zhu Quanzhong in 904, and while Emperor Ai reigned, the Tang court, then at Luoyang, was under the control of officials Zhu put in charge. In 905, under the instigation of his associates Liu Can and Li Zhen, Zhu had Emperor Ai issue an edict summoning some 30 senior aristocrats at Baima Station (白馬驛, in modern Anyang, Henan), near the Yellow River; the aristocrats were thereafter ordered to commit suicide, and their bodies were thrown into the Yellow River. Less than two years later in 907, Zhu made his final move against Emperor Ai himself, forcing the young emperor to abdicate to him. In Zhu's new Later Liang, the former Tang emperor carried the title of Prince of Jiyin, but in 908, Zhu had the prince poisoned, at the age of 15.
By 903, Zhu Quanzhong the military governor (Jiedushi) of Xuanwu Circuit (宣武, headquartered in modern Kaifeng, Henan), already previously one of the most powerful warlords in the Tang realm, had taken Emperor Zhaozong's court at Chang'an under control, in alliance with the chancellor Cui Yin. That year, Emperor Zhaozong was prepared to give Zhu the title of Deputy Generalissimo of All Circuits, with one of his sons serving, titularly, as Generalissimo, and he initially wanted to give that title to Li Yu as Li Yu was older. However, Zhu wanted a younger prince to serve as Generalissimo to avoid diverting the focus of authority, so Cui, under Zhu's orders, recommended Li Zuo. Emperor Zhaozong agreed and made Li Zuo Generalissimo.[5]
http://en.m.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8#Sanskrit
Zoroastrianism /ˌzɒroʊˈæstriənɪzəm/, also called Zarathustraism, Mazdaism andMagianism, is an ancient Iranian religion and a religious philosophy of the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian empires.[1] Estimates of the current number of Zoroastrians worldwide vary between 145,000 and 2.6 million.[2]
Zoroastrianism arose in the eastern region of the ancient Persian Empire, when the religious philosopher Zoroaster simplified the pantheon of early Iranian gods[3] intotwo opposing forces: Spenta Mainyu (Progressive mentality) and Angra Mainyu(Destructive Mentality) under the one God, Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom).[4][5]
Zoroaster's ideas led to a formal religion bearing his name by about the 6th century BCE and have influenced other later religions including Judaism, Gnosticism and Islam.[6]
Liao dynasty at its greatest extent, c. 1000
CapitalShangjing1LanguagesKhitan, Middle ChineseReligionBuddhism
Khitan traditional animism
Influences from:
Taoism
Zodiac
ZoroastrianismGovernmentMonarchyEmperor - 907–926Taizu (Abaoji) - 926–947Taizong
Khitan Empire, Great Liao
契丹國, 大遼Sinicized nomadic empire
Conquest Dynasty
in northern China↓907–1125
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_dynasty
중국 최초의 통일 국가(B.C. 221~B.C. 207)이다. 춘추 시대에는 목공이 동쪽으로 진출하여 오패(五覇)의 하나가 되었으며, 전국 시대에는 효공이 상앙을 등용하여 부국 강병책을 실시하였고, 동쪽으로 진출을 강화하여 나중에 진왕정(시황제)이 6국을 멸하고 B.C. 221년 통일을 달성하였다. 그는 중앙 집권 정치를 실시하였으나, 그의 사후에 반란이 일어나 B.C. 207년 진은 멸망하고 한나라가 건국하였다. 차이나(China)라는 중국의 영문 이름은 진에서 유래하였다.
진(秦) 나라 곧 중국(中國). 옛날 인도에서 진(秦)을 음역(音譯)하여 생긴 말임.
三藏至印土 王問支那國何若(삼장지인토 왕문지나국약하 ; 삼장대사가 인도 땅에 가니, 임금이 지나 나라란 어떤 곳인고 하고 물었다.)<자은전慈恩傳>
伏願支那皇帝福壽圓滿(복원지나황제복수원만 ; 엎드려 바라옵건대, 지나 황제께서 복과 수가 두루 원만하시기를.)<송사宋史>
Today part of China& Vietnam=Qin Dynasty.
Qin dynastyChinese秦朝Literal meaningQin dynasty
The Qin dynasty (Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: Qín Cháo; IPA: [tɕʰǐn tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]) was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 206 BC. The dynasty was formed after the conquest of six other states by the state of Qin, and its founding emperor was known as Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of Qin. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Gansu and Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the fourth century BC, during the Warring States period. In the mid and late third century BC, the Qin accomplished a series of swift conquests, first ending the powerless Zhou dynasty, and eventually conquering the other six of the Seven Warring States to gain control over the whole of China.
During its reign over China, the Qin sought to create an imperial state unified by highly structured political power and a stable economy able to support a large military.[1] The Qin central government sought to minimize the role of aristocrats and landowners and have direct administrative control over the peasantry, who comprised the overwhelming majority of the population, and control over whom would grant the Qin access to a large labor force. This allowed for the construction of ambitious projects, such as a wall on the northern border, now known as the Great Wall of China. The Qin dynasty also introduced several reforms: currency, weights and measures were standardized, and a uniform system of writing was established. An attempt to restrict criticism and purge all traces of old dynasties led to the infamous burning of books and burying of scholars incident, which has been criticized greatly by subsequent scholars. The Qin's military was also revolutionary in that it used the most recently developed weaponry, transportation, and tactics, though the government was heavy-handed and bureaucratic.
Despite its military strength, the Qin dynasty did not last long. When the first emperor died in 210 BC, his son was placed on the throne by two of the previous emperor's advisers, in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the entire dynasty through him. The advisors squabbled among themselves, however, which resulted in both their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out a few years later, and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu lieutenant, who went on to found the Han dynasty.[note 1] Despite its rapid end, the Qin dynasty influenced future Chinese empires, particularly the Han, and the European name for China is thought to be derived from it.
Qin Shihuang was the first Chinese sovereign to proclaim himself "Emperor", after reunifying China in 221 BC. That year is therefore generally taken by Western historians to be the start of the "Qin dynasty" which lasted for fifteen years until 206 when it was cut short by civil wars.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cai_(state)
SushenTraditional Chinese肅愼Simplified Chinese肃慎TranscriptionsYilouTraditional Chinese挹婁TranscriptionsMandarinHanyu PinyinYìlóu
Sushen was an ancient ethnic group or people who dwelt in the northeastern part ofChina and what is in modern times the Russian Maritime Province, in the area of modern Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces. They were active during the Zhou Dynastyperiod. Archeological relics in the area are attributed to the Xituanshan Culture, indicating that the people were, according to Ulrich Theobald, Tungusic.[1]
According to Guoyu and Shanhaijing published in the Zhanguo period (476–221 BCE), Sushen was the name of the tribe who lived in Shandong and border of Liaoxiarea.[2]
The name of Sushen appeared as early as the 6th century BC in Chinese documents. They are almost unknown with the exception of the fact that they lived to the north of China and used flint headed wooden arrows, farmed, hunted, and fished, and lived in caves and trees.[3] Ancient Chinese believed that the Sushen paid arrows as tribute to an ideal Chinese ruler. In other words, an arrival of Sushen delegates was, for the Chinese, an auspicious sign of the Chinese ruler's virtue.
From the 3rd century to the 6th century, the name Sushen was used as an alias for the Yilou, who were in eastern Manchuria. However, the connection between the Yilou and the ancient Sushen is unclear. Some historians think that Chinese, having heard that the Yilou paid arrows as tribute, linked them with the Sushen based on knowledge of ancient documents. They paid tribute several times and pleased rulers of Northern China. The Yilou disappeared from documents in the 6th century. TheMohe rose into power there instead.[4]
The Chinese characters for 'Sushen' (粛慎) can also be found in Japanesedocuments, in which the characters are annotated and read as Mishihase orAshihase. According to Nihonshoki, the Mishihase first arrived to Sado Provinceduring the reign of Emperor Kimmei. In 660, Japanese General Abe no Hirafudefeated the Mishihase in Hokkaidō by request from the native inhabitants.[
The term Sushen, rendered 肅愼, is found in Chinese records, but is annotated as Mishihase or Ashihase in Japanese language documents, which should have developed into *Mishiwase or *Ashiwase in Modern Japanese if the word had survived in colloquial speech.
According to the Nihon Shoki, the Mishihase first arrived at Sado Island during the reign of Emperor Kimmei. In 660, Japanese General Abe no Hirafu defeated the Mishihase in "Watarishima" at the request of the native inhabitants. During the Edo period, Arai Hakuseki proposed that Watarishima was Ezo, which was later renamedHokkaidō. The battle place was recorded as the mouth of a large river, which is proposed to be Ishikari River.[1]
The Mishihase (粛填?), also read as Ashihase and Shukushin, were a people of ancient Japan, believed to have lived along the northern portion of the coast of theSea of Japan. The term Sushen, rendered 肅愼, is found in Chinese records, but is annotated as Mishihase or Ashihase in Japanese language documents, which should have developed into *Mishiwase or *Ashiwase in Modern Japanese if the word had survived in colloquial speech.
Some historians consider that the Mishihase were identical to the Sushen in Chinese records, but others think that the Japanese people named the indigenous people in the northeast based on their knowledge of Chinese records, just as the Chinese did during the Three Kingdoms Period. Kisao Ishizuki of the Sapporo Universitysuggested that the Mishihase was the Gilyak belonging to the Okhotsk culture in theHokkaido Shimbun in 1979.[2]
They are believed to have spoken a Tungusic language.[c
The Nivkh suffered heavily from foreign influences, the first of which was the migration of the Tungusic peoples.[citation needed] Later, the Qing Dynasty of Chinaforced the Nivkh to pay tribute to them. In 1850s–1860s 19th century, RussianCossacks annexed and colonized Nivkh lands, where they are a small, often neglected, minority today.[5][6] Today, the Nivkh live in Russian-style housing and with the over-fishing and pollution of the streams and seas, they have adopted many foods from Russian cuisine. The Nivkh practice shamanism, which is important for the winter Bear festival, though some have converted to Russian Orthodoxy.[7
The Nivkh suffered severely from the Cossack conquest and imposition of the Tsarist Russians; they called the latter kinrsh (devils).[16] The Russian Empire gained complete control over Nivkh lands after the Treaty of Aigun 1858 and the Treaty ofPeking 1860.[14] The Russians established a penal colony on Sakhalin, which operated from 1857 to 1906. They transported numerous Russian criminal and political exiles there, including Lev Shternberg, an important early ethnographer of the Nivkh. The Nivkh were soon outnumbered; they were sometimes employed as prison guards and to track escaped convicts.[6] The Nivkh suffered epidemics ofsmallpox, plague, and Influenza, brought by the foreign immigrants and spread in the crowded, unsanitary prison environment.[1
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivkh_people
Hanja
姓 (seong) (hangeul 성,
씨 (ssi)
seed, kernel
Radical: 女 (woman) + 生 (born) ("the woman we were borne from gives us our name")
氏 (radical 83 氏+0, 4 strokes, cangjie input 竹女心 (HVP), four-corner 72740)
clan, family) née, born as, maiden name
The third meaning has become largely obsolete, as current Chinese practice is for married women to continue to use their former surnames. The practice of sometimes adopting the husband's surname is being revived, however. 氏 follows the maiden name, which follows the married name — 張), 李), or配married to a lady of the Zhang clan
The mountainous terrain and large forest coverage of Jiangxi has made it historically one of the more wild places of central China. South China Tigers have been seen as recently as fifteen or twenty years ago and projects are underway to document evidence of existing tigers, if there are any. Several mountain areas along the northern border with Hunan and Hubei are potential sites for "wilderness" preserves specifically for protecting or even reintroducing tigers.
Other wildlife, though not plentiful, are more numerous in Jiangxi than in many other developed areas of China. Numerous species of birds are common, especially around the marshes of Lake Poyang in the north. Though protected, mammals such as muntjak, wild boar, civet cats, and pangolins, are still common enough that they'll even occasionally be seen in markets for sale as game meat, or possibly even in a forest.
The late Paleocene mesonychid, Jiangxia chaotoensis was found in the province, and named after it.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Ka-shing
Sinicization, sinicisation, or sinification, (Chinese: 汉化; pinyin: Hànhuà), also calledchinalization (Chinese: 中国化; pinyin: Zhōngguóhuà), is a process whereby non-Han Chinese societies come under the influence of dominant Han Chinese state and society. Areas of influence include alphabet, diet, economics, industry, language, law, lifestyle, politics, religion, sartorial choices, technology, culture, and cultural values. More broadly, "Sinicization" may refer to policies of acculturation, assimilation, or cultural imperialism of neighbouring cultures to China, depending on historical political relations. This is reflected in the histories of Korea, Vietnam and Japan in the East Asian cultural sphere, for example, in the adoption of the Chinese writing system.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinicization
The Emperor Taizong of Liao (simplified Chinese: 辽太宗; traditional Chinese: 遼太宗;pinyin: Liáo Tàizōng) (November 25, 902 – May 15, 947), personal name Yelü Deguang (Chinese: 耶律德光; pinyin: Yēlǜ Déguāng), courtesy name Dejin (德謹), nickname Yaogu (堯骨), was the second emperor of the Khitan Empire (December 11, 927 – May 15, 947).
He was the second son of Abaoji, founder of the Khitan Empire which became theLiao Dynasty. Though his father named his elder brother, Prince Bei, as his heir apparent in 916, upon his death, the Empress Dowager Yingtian favored Deguang because she felt he better embodied the ideals of the steppe. In addition to being the favorite of his mother, he was also favored by the Khitan nobility. Yēlǜ Déguāng was crowned as emperor following the death of his father in 926.
Yelü Bei (Chinese: 耶律倍) (born 899 [1]-January 7, 937[2][3]), also known as Yelü Tuyu(耶律突欲 or 耶律圖欲), posthumously honored Emperor Wenxian Qinyi (文獻欽義皇帝) with the temple name Yizong (Simplified: 辽义宗, Traditional: 遼義宗), formally known as Ren Huangwang (人皇王, "imperial king of men") during his lifetime (including his period as the King of Dongdan), known as Dongdan Muhua (東丹慕華) (931) and then Li Zanhua (李贊華) (931-937) as a Later Tang subject, was the eldest son of Emperor Taizu of Liao, the founder of the Liao Dynasty. He was declared successor to the Emperor Taizu in 916, but never succeeded to the throne. Rather, after the accession of his younger brother Yelü Deguang (Emperor Taizong), he fled to the Shatuo Later Tang, where he was killed in 937.
The newly crowned Emperor Taizong allowed his elder brother to retain his title of Prince of Dongdan, which was created from the recently conquered kingdom ofBalhae (known as Bohai in Chinese). However, just to be on the safe side, Taizong maintained surveillance over his elder brother. Prince Bei slipped into China in 930, but as late as 934, he continued sending intelligence reports to his younger brother despite the welcome he received by Emperor Mingzong of the Later Tang.
Taizong raised Prince Bei's son as his own. Taizong’s nephew became the very model of a Khitan prince under Taizong’s tutelage. Taizong was also ambitious like his father, and wanted to expand Khitan's territory. After the defection of a Later Jin general, Taizong was able to conquer the Later Jin in 947 after fighting a hard and bloody campaign. It was at this time that Taizong changed the dynasty name to Liao. Taizong died in China on this expedition, during which he was accompanied by his nephew.
Taizong reformed the political structures of the Liao dynasty. He set up North and South ministries, dealing with the tribes and the Han respectively. However, there were still many flaws in the government and army structure.
Following Taizong’s death in 947, Prince Bei’s son ascended the throne as Emperor Shizong despite the opposition of the Empress Dowager Yingtian.
Dasheng Daming Shenlie Tian Emperor (大聖大明神烈天皇帝)Temple nameTaizuBorn872DiedSeptember 6, 926 (aged 54)
The Emperor Taizu of Liao (Chinese: 遼太祖; pinyin: Liáo Tàizŭ; Wade–Giles: Liao T'ai Tsu[1]; Mongolian: Ambagyan) was the first emperor of the Liao Dynasty (907–926).[2] His given name was Abaoji (阿保機, A-pao-chi),[1] and he also took the Chinese name Yi (億). Some sources[2] also suggest that the surname Yelü (耶律) was adopted during his lifetime, though there is no unanimity on this point.
He was born on 872 in southern Mongolia and had a turbulent childhood. His grandfather was killed in a conflict between tribes, and his father and uncles fled. Yelü Abaoji was hidden by his grandmother for his safety. He was enthroned as emperor on February 29, 907 and died on September 6, 926.[3] He was responsible for the conquering and unification of all of Inner Mongolia, Northern China, and SouthernManchuria.[2]
Later generations of Chinese historians record a variety of legends that surrounded the birth of Abaoji. According to the legends, his mother dreamed that the sun fell from the sky and into her bosom, from which pregnancy followed. When she gave birth, the room is said to have become filled with a mysterious light and extraordinary fragrance. As a newborn, his body was that of a three-year-old, and the legends go on to say that he was walking at the age of three months. He is even recorded as being able to see events before they passed.[4]
An important point to be made was the location of the Khitan (Chinese: Qidan) in relation to the other neighboring tribes. The Khitan resided on the east slope of theGreater Khingan Mountains (Xing'an). West of the mountains were other nomadic pastoral tribes such as the Shiwei, and the Xi, along with the Turkic Uighur tribe. These other tribes had inter-married with the Khitan. Further west were the Tartars, a warlike tribe on the steppes of Mongolia. East and northeast lay the Jurchen tribe all the way to the Amur river. They were a peaceful people that resided in small villages and subsisted by hunting and fishing. Across the Liao River to the east and southeast until one reached the Yalu River lay the Bohai people, the majority of which were a settled agricultural society. The Bohai had a population of Koreans and Chinese that they had subjugated.[5]
The Yaolian clan had dominated the leadership of the Khitan[4] tribes since the 750s. They maintained good relations with the Tang Dynasty of China to the south. However, by the end of the ninth century, leaders of the powerful Yila Tribe were expressing dissatisfaction with the Yaolian khans. Abaoji's father had been the elected chieftain of the Yila Tribe. As surnames were considered a marker of Chinese culture, they were not used by the Khitan people outside of the Yaolian imperial clan.
Abaoji became chieftain of the Yila tribe in 901 and in 903, was named the Yuyue, Commander of all Khitan military forces. This had the effect of making him second only to the great khan in the hierarchy of the Khitan nation. He started making a name for himself in 905, when he led 70,000 cavalry into Shanxi to create a brotherhood with Li Keyong. Not only did he offer "brotherood" but he pledged support against Zhu Wen.[6] This showed that he was willing to be more aggressive than the Great Khan. In 907, he appeared at the triennial council and demanded to be named the khaghan, the Khan of khans. His successes against the Chinese in the north, who he had been raiding since 901, led to receiving the support of seven tribal chiefs and even the acquiescence of the last Yaolian Great Khan himself.[7]
From 907 until 916 Abaoji was beset by constant uprisings and rebellions, most instigated by his own family members (cousins and brothers). He eventually won them over by showing first how successful they could become as a dynasty. Second, with the walled city showing off the tribes wealth and power, and finally he would appoint all the usurpers to amenable positions to placate them. The skillful manipulation of his enemies allowed him to increase his and his tribe's power.[8
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Keyong
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Liao
TaizuEmperor of Liao DynastyFebruary 27, 907 – September 6, 926Taizong
Ashina had been part of various late Xiongnu confederations. About 460 they were subjugated by the Rouran, who ousted them from Xinjiang into the Altay Mountains, where the Ashina gradually emerged as the leaders of the early Turkic confederation, known as theGöktürks.[28] By the 550s, Bumin Khan felt strong enough to throw off the yoke of the Rouran domination and established the Göktürk Empire, which flourished until the 630s and from 680s until 740s. The Orkhon Valley was the centre of the Ashina power.
Multiple members of the Ashina clan served as generals in the Tang Dynastymilitary. The general Ashina She'er led a Tang military Tang campaign against Kuchaand against Karasahr in 648.[29] His brother, Ashina Zhong, was also a Tang general.[30] Ashina Mishe and Ashina Buzhen joined Su Dingfang's military expeditionagainst the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657.[31]
After the collapse of the Göktürk empire under pressure from the resurgent Uyghurs, branches of the Ashina clan moved westward to Europe, where they became thekaghans of the Khazars[32][33] and possibly other nomadic peoples with Turkic roots. According to Marquart, the Ashina clan constituted a noble caste throughout thesteppes. Similarly, the Bashkir historian and Turkolog Zeki Validi Togan described them as a "desert aristocracy" that provided rulers for a number of Eurasian nomadic empires. Accounts of the Göktürk and Khazar khaganates suggest that the Ashina clan was accorded sacred, perhaps quasi-divine status in the shamanic religion practiced by the steppe nomads of the first millennium CE.
A relevant example of the special status of this wolf clan is demonstrated by Mongolian history. The Chonos, whose name translates as "wolves", were held in such esteem by Mongolian warlords that when Jamukha in the late 12th century took prisoners of war from the wolf-tribe, he executed them by boiling during the subsequent victory decapitation ritual to avoid the taboo of letting wolf-blood mingle with the Earth.[citation needed] By the way, according to Rashid-ad-Din, Chonos came to Mongolia from Ergenekun and were blacksmiths
The Goguryeo language was spoken in the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (37 bce – 668 ce), one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The language is also known as Old Koguryo, Koguryoic, and Koguryoan.
It is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggest that it was similar but not identical to the language of Silla, and may have been influenced by theTungusic languages. Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla.
Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, Eastern Okjeo, andGojoseon were similar, while the language of Malgal (Mohe) in Manchuria differed significantly.[1][2][3]
Some historical linguists have attempted to link Buyeo, Goguryeo, and Baekje withOld Japanese. Others argue that the connections to Japanese may be due to earlier languages of southern Korea, such as perhaps Gaya, and that Goguryeo–Baekje was closer to Silla and Korean.[4] Words of Goguryeo origin can be found in Middle Korean (early 10th to late 14th century).
Korean nameHangul말갈Hanja靺鞨TranscriptionsRevised RomanizationMalgalMcCune–ReischauerMalgal
The Mohe (or Malgal, Mogher) were a Tungusic people in ancient Manchuria. They are sometimes considered the ancestors of the Jurchens, modern-day Manchus and other Tungusic peoples. According to some records, they originally dwelt near theLiao River and later migrated southward. They were involved in the ancient history of Korea: the records of the southern Korean Kingdoms of Baekje and Silla during the 1st century and 2nd century AD include numerous battles against the Mohe. Later, they became subject to the northern Korean kingdom of Goguryeo and its successor state, Balhae.
Göktürks
Total populationancestral to Uyghurs, Yugurs, and other Turkic populationRegions with significant populationsCentral AsiaLanguagesOld TurkicReligionTengrism
The Türks or the Kök Türks (Old Turkic: Chinese: 突厥; pinyin: Tūjué), also known as Ashina/Açina Turks and sometimes as its Anatolian Turkish versionGöktürks (Celestial/Blue Turks), were a nomadic confederation of Turkic peoples in medieval Inner Asia. The kök Türks, under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his sons, succeeded the Rouran as the main power in the region and established the Turkic Khaganate, one of several nomadic dynasties which would shape the future geolocation, culture, and dominant beliefs of Turkic peoples.
The name Göktürk is said to mean "Celestial Turks".[7] This is consistent with "the cult of heavenly ordained rule" which was a recurrent element of Altaic political culture and as such may have been imbibed by the Göktürks from their predecessors in Mongolia.[8] Similarly, the name of the ruling Ashina clan may derive from theKhotanese Sakā term for "deep blue", āššɪna.[9] The name might also derive from aTungusic tribe related to Aisin.[10]
The word Türk meant "strong" in Old Turkic.[
The Göktürk rulers originated from the Ashina clan, who first come to our attention in 439. The Book of Sui reports that in that year on October 18, the Tuoba ruler Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei overthrew Juqu Mujian of the Northern Liang in eastern Gansu,[12][13][14] whence 500 Ashina families fled northwest to the Rouran Khaganatein the vicinity of Gaochang.[5][15]
Ashina (Chinese: 阿史那, Modern Chinese: (Pinyin): āshǐnà, (Wade-Giles): a-shih-na,Middle Chinese) [ʔɑʃi̯ə˥nɑ˩], Asen, Asena, Açina etc.) was a tribe and the ruling dynasty of the ancient Turks who rose to prominence in the mid-6th century when their leader, Bumin Khan, revolted against the Rouran. The two main branches of the family, one descended from Bumin and the other from his brother Istemi, ruled over the eastern and western parts of the Göktürk empire, respectively. The Ashina clan were considered to be the chosen of the sky god Tengri and the ruler (Khagan) was the incarnation of the favor the sky god bestowed on the Turks. The Turks, like many of their subjects, were believers in Tengri. They venerated their ancestors, annually conducting special ceremonies at the ancestral cave from which they believed the Ashina had sprung.[1] Although the supreme deity of the Turks was Tengri, the sky god, it was the cult of the wolf that was politically far more important.[2] The Ashinas were a foresighted dynasty and named the state they established as Kök-Türk.[3] The wolf symbolizes honour and is also considered the mother of most Turkic peoples. Asena (Ashina Tuwu) is the wolf mother of Bumin, the first Khan of the Göktürks.[4]
Abu Ja'far Ashinas (Arabic أبو جعفر أشناس) was a general of the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim, possibly of the sacred clan of the First Turkic empire, transcribed in Chinese as Ashina 阿史那. While a folk etymology of his name is given in al-Tabari gave him the first rank among his Turkish generals and a text of al-Mas'udi described him as a great noble. The name Ashinas is only known for princes, it is quite certain that he was a late member of the imperial clan of the Turks.
According to al-Tabari,[1] he was purchased by al-Mu'tasim in Baghdad during the reign of al-Ma'mun, along with Itakh al-Khazari and Wasif. He was in charge atSamarra, the Abbasid capital at the time, of the Turkish troops of al-Mu'tasim. When he died in 844 he was governor of Egypt,[1] and the most powerful general serving the Abbasids.
Findley assumes that the Ashina probably comes from one of the Saka languages of central Asia and means "blue", gök in Turkic, the color identified with the east, so that Göktürk, another name for the Turk empire, meant the "Turks of the East".[15] This is seconded by the Hungarian researcher András Róna-Tas, who finds it plausible "that we are dealing with a royal family and clan of Saka origin".[13]
The Scythian languages (/ˈsɪθiən/ or /ˈsɪðiən/) are an extinct family of Iranian languages of the classical and late antiquity (Middle Iranian) period, spoken in a vast region of Eurasia named Scythia.
The location and extent of Scythia varied by time, but generally it encompassed the part of Eastern Europe east of the Vistula river and much of Central Asia. The dominant ethnic groups among the Scythians were nomadic pastoralists of Central Asia and the Pontic-Caspian steppe. Fragments of their speech known from inscriptions and words quoted in ancient authors as well as analysis of their names indicate that it was an Indo-European language, more specifically from the Iranianbranch of the Indo-Iranian languages. Further classification is uncertain and elusive, though it is usually considered a part of the areal group of the Eastern Iranianlanguages.
Turks was Tengri, the sky god, it was the cult of the wolf that was politically far more important.[2] The Ashinas were a foresighted dynasty and named the state they established as Kök-Türk.[3] The wolf symbolizes honour and is also considered the mother of most Turkic peoples. Asena (Ashina Tuwu) is the wolf mother of Bumin, the first Khan of the Göktürks.[4]
The Altai Mountains (Altay Mountains) are a mountain range in East Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan come together, and are where the rivers Irtysh and Ob have their headwaters. The northwest end of the range is at 52° N and between 84° and 90° E (where it merges with the Sayan Mountains to the east), and extends southeast from there to about 45° N and 99° E, where it gradually becomes lower and merges into the high plateau of the Gobi Desert.
In Turkic and Mongolic languages, the name, Altai, means the "Golden Mountain"; almeaning red/gold and tai/tag: 金山; literally: "Gold Mountain" in Chinese texts). The proposed Altaic language family takes its name from this mountain range.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tujue
The Three Kingdoms of Korea, associated with the Goguryeo, Silla, Baekje, and Gaya(Kara) languages; Buyeo had been the northern portion of Goguryeo on this map.
Buyeo or Fuyu languages (부여 in Korean, Fúyú (扶餘) in Chinese) are a hypothetical that consists of ancient languages of the northern Korean Peninsula and southern Manchuria and possibly Japan. According to Chinese records, the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Dongye, Okjeo, Baekje—and possibly Gojoseon—were similar. Ye-Maek may have been ancestral.
Yemaek or Yamaek (Korean pronunciation: [jemɛk]) were an ethnic group who dwelt in Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. They had ancestral ties to various Koreankingdoms including Gojoseon, Gori (고리; 藁離), Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, Okjeo,Dongye, Yangmaek (양맥; 梁貊) and Sosumaek (소수맥; 小水貊), and is believed to be one of the ancient tribes that were formed into the Tungusic peoples.
Yemaek is believed to be a combination of Ye (濊·穢·薉) and Maek (貊·貉) people of two neighboring cultures.[3][4][5] The main culture is the Xitunshan culture (西团山文化). He Qiutao (何秋涛) said Ye is the short name of Buyeo.[6] Dongye first appears in history as a vassal state of Gojoseon until its fall to China in 108 BCE.[7] It was known as the Huiyetou (穢邪頭) state in Shuowen Jiezi.[8][9] It later became a vassal of the increasingly powerful Goguryeo. According to the Chinese Records of Three Kingdoms, Ye worshiped tigers,[10] whereas according to Erya (爾雅), Maek means bears. Gomnaru, the capital of Baekje, also means the "bear port". Historians suggest tigers and bears may have been totems worshiped by Ye and Maek tribes.
Several history books suggest Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom in history, was established by Yemaek.
In Dangun's ancestry legend of Gojoseon recorded in Samguk Yusa, a tiger and a bear living in a cave prayed to Hwanung that they may become human, and while the tiger shortly gave up and left the cave, the bear remained and after 21 days was transformed into a woman who gave birth to Dangun Wanggeom,[11] which is believed to symbolize combination of Ye and Maek tribes into one Yemaek tribe.[12]Tombstone of Yeon Namsan (연남산) found in Luoyang says Yeon, son ofGoguryeo's leader Yeon Gaesomun, is a Joseon person.[13] is called "Yemaek Joseon" in the Chinese Records of the Grand Historian, which says Yemaek Joseon bordered on Xiongnu around 200 BC.[14] But classical Chinese didn't have comma, it also says "Yemaek and Joseon".Genetically, Haplogroup O2b is believed to be a Y-DNA Haplogroup characterizing Yemaek's genetic pool.[15]
There have been some academic attempts to recover Yemaek words based on the fragments of toponyms recorded in the Samguk Sagi for the areas once possessed by Goguryeo and Baekje.
According to Samguk Sagi, Silla was established as a confederacy of six clans composed of Joseon refugees,[16] and the Royal Seal of Ye (예왕지인; 濊王之印), previously used by Buyeo's kings, was found in Silla in 19 AD and presented for KingNamhae of Silla.[17]
Traces of Yemaek culture can be found in Korean culture, such as kimchi, bulgogiand ondol.
OndolHangul온돌 / 구들Hanja溫Revised Romanizationondol / gudeulMcCune–Reischauerondol / kudŭl
An ondol, also called gudeul, in Korean traditional architecture, is underfloor heatingwhich uses direct heat transfer from wood smoke to the underside of a thick masonry floor. In modern usage it refers to any type of underfloor heating, or a hotel or sleeping room in Korean (as opposed to Western) style.
The main components of the traditional ondol are a firebox or stove (agungi; 아궁이) accessible from an adjoining (typically kitchen or master bedroom) room, a raisedmasonry floor underlain by horizontal smoke passages, and a vertical, freestandingchimney on the opposite exterior providing a draft. The heated floor is supported by stone piers or baffles to distribute the smoke, covered by stone slabs, clay and an impervious layer such as oiled paper.
The earliest use of ondol has been found at an archaeological site in present-day North Korea. A Bronze Age archaeological find, circa BC 1000, discovered in Unggi,Hamgyeongbuk-do, in present-day Korea, shows a clear vestige of Gudeul (Korean: 구들) in the Excavated Dwelling (Korean:움집 Chinese:竪穴住居) unearthed at the archaeological site.[citation needed]
Early ondols began as gudeul that contained the furnace/cooking stove in the building. With the evolution of the structure, the furnace was moved entirely outdoors to prevent overheating in the summer and reduce indoor smoke. As well, entire rooms would be built on the furnace flue to create ondol floored rooms.[1]
Etymology
The term gudeul has been colloquially spoken for over two thousand years, and called by many alternate names (janggaeng (장갱 / 長坑), hwagaeng (화갱 / 火坑),nandol (난돌 / 暖突), yeondol (연돌 / 烟突)); the term ondol was introduced around the end of 19th century.[2] According to a Korean folkloric historian Son Jintae (1900 - missing during the 1950-53 Korean War), gudeul has been originated from guun-dol(Korean), which means "heated stone", and its pronunciation has undergone some change from gudol or gudul to finally take the form of gudeul. Ondol was first written in Hanja by modern-day writers.
일설에는 퉁그스계 인 숙신족을 중국말로 Sushen 이라한데서 우리민족의일파인 숙신 예맥족
이란것에 연계성을 가지고 지칭한 말이라고도 합니다
신채호는 조선의 어원이 숙신(肅愼)에서 나온 것이라 하고, 그 원래 명칭이 주신(珠申)이라 주장 한바있습니다
아사달(阿斯達)
고조선(古朝鮮)의 수도로 전해지는 지명입니다 현재황해도 연백군일대 묘향산
이라고 비정합니다
환단이란 민족이 시작된 시점을 말합니다 고기란 그 오랜된 이야기서를 말합니다
환단고기는 고조선 이전의 국가들에 대하여 기록한 책입니다 이책은 우리의 역사를 1만년정도 추정하며 고조선이전에 이미 배달국 과12환국들이 있었음 밝혀주는 기록이 이책의 주요내용입니다
최초의 국가 환국.이 탄생 연대가 1만년전으로 말하며
환국은 3300년 동안 일곱 명의 환인이 통치했다 한다.
그 후 신시(배달국) 은 열 여덟 명의 환웅이 1500년 이상 다스렸다고 합니다.
환국과 신시 배달국이 오천년 정도 이어진 후, 마침내 단군조선이 탄생하는데,
마흔 일곱 명의 단군이 통치했다고 합니다
환국(桓國)
BC 7197 천해(바이칼 호) 근처에서 발원되어 남하 예맥족과 숙신 말갈 족으로 구성된 민족국가
배달국(倍達國)( BC 3898년- BC 2381년)
배달(倍達) 밝달에서 유래됨, 한민족을 배달겨레라고 하는 이유.
환국 말기인 약 기원전 6000년 전 환웅께서 웅족과 호족의 협력으로 결합(부족연맹)하여 건국한 것이라합니다.
도읍은 태백산 꼭대기 신단수 밑의 신시에 정하고, 나라이름은‘배달(倍達)’이라 하였다.건국이념은 환인께 내려받은 "홍익인간, 재세이화,광명개천" 의 3대 정신으로 정하시고,토착족인 웅족과 호족을 융합하여 교화하였다.하며
이 배달국은 제1대 배달 환웅으로부터 제18대 거불단 환웅까지1565년간 지속되었다고 합니다
고조선(古朝鮮,
기원전 2333년? ~ 기원전 108년)
한국 역사상 최초의 국가로 일컬어지는 고대 국가로이어집니다
환웅(桓雄) 제정(祭政)일치 사회의 정치지도자겸 종교지도자의 직위를 가리키는 명칭
단군왕검은 고조선 사회의 제주이자 군장으로, 단군은 대제사장적인 성격을 많이 담고 있으며 왕검은 국가를 통치하는 대군주의 의미를 띠고 있다고 해석한다.[3] 즉 제정일치의 지도자이다. 방언의 분포와 비교언어학적으로 살펴볼 때에도 제사장과 정치적 지도자를 함께 이르는 것으로 파악하고있음
http://m.kin.naver.com/mobile/qna/detail.nhn?d1Id=11&dirId=111001&docId=173440302&qb=7JWE7IKs64us&enc=utf8§ion=kin&rank=2&search_sort=0&spq=0
환인 하늘산 선홍산문화 bc4800~bc3898
환인(桓因)은 신화 상의 신격(神格) 인물로 환웅의 아버지로 전해진다. '단인(檀因)' 이라고도 한다. 한민족의 건국신화인 단군 ..
단군왕검은 삼신상제님께 천제를 올리고, 아사달(지금의 흑룡강성 하얼빈)에 도읍을 정하였다.' 아침 태양이 떠올라 빛을 ...
고조선이 도읍지를 여러 번 옮긴 것으로 나타난다. 아사달-평양-백악산 아사달로 옮겨갔다가, 아사달에서 ...
고조선의 수도는 아사달(阿斯達)로 알려져 있는데 오늘날 정확한 위치는 알려져 있지 않다. 고조선의 수도는 아사달 ...
파란 눈과 빨간 머리카락을 가진 서양인은 원(元)나라 때의 마르코폴로다. 1840년부터 1919년 사이에 중국에 온 “서양인”은 주로 외교왕래 때의 정부측 공사, 전쟁시기의 군대, 동양에 생계를 꾸리기 위해 온 상인, 농촌과 도시를 다니던 선교사들이었다. 민국시기에 들어서서 특히 중국공산당이 성립된 후 중국의 민족민주혁명이 세계혁명의 일부가 된 다음 국제공산당(코민테른)은 끊임없이 중국공산당에게 중국혁명을 이끌 대표를 보냈을 뿐 만 아니라 일부 우호적인 인사는 토지혁명시기와 항일전쟁시기에 혁명지역에 와서 중국인민의 친구가 되었다. 백 년 이래 “서양인”은 중국사회에 깊은 인상을 남겨 놓았으며 중국인민의 서양인에 대한 인식도 단편적인 면에서 객관적으로 변하였다. 이 과정은 바로 중국인민이 세계를 이해하고 세계로 나아가는 과정이었으며 긍정적으로 말하자면 바로 중국민족의 진보에 있어서 빼놓을 수 없는 과정이기도 하였다. 2. 본 론 ( 1 ) 서양학문의 동양전파 선구자: 마테오 리치(Matteo Ricci) 마테오 리치(Matteo Ricci, 1552∼1610)는 최초로 중국에 온 선교사 중의 한 사람이며, 그의 가장 큰 업적은 “학술선교”와 “학술선교”의 이름으로 대량의 서양문화와 과학기술을 중국에 전파한 것이다. 물론 천주교와 서양학문도 “학술선교”를 구실로 중국으로 들어와 중국에 전파되었다. 비록 마테오 리치 이전에도 중국에 온 선교사가 이미 중국에서 서양문화를 소개했지만 넓은 범위에서나 깊이 면에서 모두 마테오 리치와 비교할 수는 없었다. 마테오 리치는 “학술선교”를 이용하여 중국에 지리학, 천문학과 수학을 들여와 16세기 이래 서양문화가 동양에 점점 들어오는 새로운 국면을 열었다. 비록 그 후의 선교사들이 이 전통을 끊임없이 더욱더 발전시켰지만 “서양문화를 동양에 전수한 첫 번째 스승”이란 이 호칭은 마땅히 마테오 리치에게는 전혀 손색이 없다.구 상하이 유태인 상인의 맹주: 사순(Sassoon)그룹 세계적으로 가장 똑똑한 사람은 유태인이라고 하는데 유태인 중에서 많은 과학자가 배출되었고 또 적잖은 사업가도 배출되었다. 수백 년 전에 사순(Sassoon)이라는 성을 가진 유태인 가족이 바그다드(현 이라크 수도)에 정착하였다. 이후 사순가는 바그다드 수석 재정장관을 오랫동안 세습하였고 바그다드 성 전체의 재정 사무를 보면서 현지 유태인의 “족장”이 되었다. 18세기 후반 세계 반유태인 정서가 확산되었고 바그다드 반유태인 활동은 갈수록 심해졌다. 1820년대 사순가는 “‘족장”의 지위를 잃었다. 전 족장인 살리(Saili)의 아들 데이비드 사순(David Sasoon)은 바그다드 당시 행정장관이 실행한 잔혹한 반유태인 활동으로 인해 박해를 받았고 하는 수 없이 일가족을 데리고 바그다드를 떠났다. 얼마 후 데이비드 사순 일가족은 인도 뭄바이에 정착하고 영국 국적을 취득하였다. 데이비드 사순부터 시작하여 이 유태인 가족의 세력은 점차 중국으로 향하였고 백여 년 동안의 사업 끝에 마침내 구상하이 유태인 상인의 맹주가 되었다. 중국과의 인연: 카두리 (Kadoorie) 가족(Family) 1985년 세계적으로 유명한 홍콩 카두리 부자 회사 로렌스 카두리( Lawrence Kadoorie)이사장이 중국을 방문하였고 덩샤오핑(鄧小平)과 함께 다야완 원자력 발전소 설립 계획을 수립하였다. 대아만 원자력 발전소는 광동성 다야완(大亞灣) 다캉춘(大坑村)에 위치하며 홍콩 시내와의 직선거리가 50Km 떨어져 있었으며 중국 대륙 제1의 대형 상업 원자력 발전소이다. 건설 규모는 900메가 와트급 원자력 발전 설비가 2대이며 연평균 발전 용량은 100억 kw이다. 10년 가까이 건설을 하여 1994년 2월 6일 1호기가 정식으로 운영에 들어갔고 당시 국무원 총리였던 리펑이 경축 행사에서 홍콩측 개척자 로렌스 카두리 작사의 공로를 크게 치하하였다. 로렌스 카두리가 한 치의 주저도 없이 중국 원자력 발전소 건설에 공헌할 수 있었던 것은 중국에 오랜 세월 두터운 정을 쌓아왔기 때문이다. 똑똑한 거상(巨商): 하둔 사일러스 아론 하둔(Silas Aaron Hardoon)은 구 상하이에서 모르는 사람이 없을 정도로 유명한 유태인 모험가이자 빈털터리에 신분도 낮은 유랑자였다. 오직 유태인의 선천적인 사업 기질을 바탕으로 그는 홀연단신으로 호화롭고 사치스러우며 방탕한 생활로 가득 찬 상하이탄(上海灘)에 뛰어 들어 단숨에 어마어마한 재산을 가진 억만장자가 되어 “위엔동(遠東) 제일의 부자”라는 별명을 얻게 되었다. 하둔이 구 상하이에서 겪은 60년 동안의 모험과 출세의 역사는 서양 모험가들이 상하이에서 겪은 출세의 축소판이라 할 수 있다. 하둔은 청불전쟁 기간에 저가에 많은 토지를 사두었다. 그 후 땅값이 폭등하여 한 순간에 명실상부한 백만장자로 우뚝 섰다. 일반 직원이었던 하둔이 영국과 프랑스 두 조계지에서 영국 국적을 가진 유명인으로 성장한 것이다. 중서관계 역사속 풍운아: 하트 하트(Robert Hart)는 1835년 2월 20일 북아일랜드 얼스터(Ulster) 아마그(Armagh) 포터다운(Portadown)의 작은 술장사 집에서 태어났다. 그의 조상은 스코틀랜드에서 이민 온 사람이다. 하트는 어릴 적부터 총명하여 1850년 15살이 되는 해, 벨파스트의 최고학부인 퀸즈(Queen's)대학에 입학했다. 당시 그의 나이는 입학하는 최저연령보다 2살이나 어렸다. 퀸즈대학에서 공부하는 3년 동안 하트는 줄곧 우수학생이었으며 학교에서 상을 여러 번 받았다. 하트는 1854년 5월 영국을 떠나 중국으로 건너 온 후 청나라가 멸망하기 3년전인 1908년에 세상을 떠났기에 그는 반세기가 넘는 세월을 중국에서 보냈다. 그는 일생의 70%이라는 시간을 중국에서 보냈으며 또 그 중에서 2/3의 시간은 중국 세관의 대권을 장악한 근대 중국과 서양과의 관계역사상 아주 중요한 역할을 한 풍운아였다. 3. 결 론 기원전 53년, 한대(漢代)에서 시작된 로마군대가 이란을 침입한 후 이란군대에게 멸망당하고 6,000여명의 로마병사들이 영창현에 살게 된 이후 특히, 지난 100여년간 중국에 온 외국인들 중 대표적인 인물들의 활동을 보면 다음과 같이 정리할 수 있다. 먼저, 서양학문의 동양전파 선구자라 할 수 있는 마테오 리치(Matteo Ricci, 1552∼1610)는 최초로 중국에 온 선교사 중의 한 사람이며, 그의 가장 큰 업적은 “학술선교”와 “학술선교”의 이름으로 대량의 서양문화와 과학기술을 중국에 전파한 것이다. 물론 천주교와 서양학문도 “학술선교”를 구실로 중국으로 들어와 중국에 전파되었다. 두 번째 구 상하이 유태인 상인의 맹주인 사순(Sassoon)그룹은 1929년 사순빌딩을 건립했는데, 이 건물은 상하이(上海)에 있는 사순그룹의 상징적 건물이며 당시 상하이 초호화 호텔이기도 하였다. 세계적으로 가장 똑똑한 사람은 유태인이라고 하는데 유태인 중에서 많은 과학자가 배출되었고 또 적잖은 사업가도 배출되었다. 데이비드 사순부터 시작해 이 유태인 가족의 세력은 점차 중국으로 향하였고 백여 년의 사업 끝에 구 상하이 유태인 상인의 맹주가 되었다. 한편, 1985년 세계적으로 유명한 홍콩 카두리 부자 회사 로렌스 카두리( Lawrence Kadoorie)이사장이 중국을 방문하였고 덩샤오핑(鄧小平)과 함께 다야완 원자력 발전소 설립 계획을 수립하였다. 이 집안이 카두리가이다. 대아만 원자력 발전소는 중국 대륙 제1의 대형 상업 원자력 발전소이다. 로렌스 카두리가 한 치의 주저도 없이 중국 원자력 발전소 건설에 공헌할 수 있었던 것은 중국에 오랜 세월 두터운 정을 쌓아왔기 때문이다. 똑똑한 거상(巨商)인 사일러스 아론 하둔(Silas Aaron Hardoon)은 구 상하이에서 모르는 사람이 없을 정도로 유명한 유태인 모험가이자 빈털터리에 신분도 낮은 유랑자였다. 오직 유태인의 선천적인 사업 기질을 바탕으로 그는 홀연단신으로 호화롭고 사치스러우며 방탕한 생활로 가득 찬 상하이탄(上海灘)에 뛰어 들어 단숨에 어마어마한 재산을 가진 억만장자가 되어 “위엔동(遠東) 제일의 부자”라는 별명을 얻게 되었다. 하둔이 구 상하이에서 겪은 60년 동안의 모험과 출세의 역사는 서양 모험가들이 상하이에서 겪은 출세의 축소판이라 할 수 있다. 로버트 하트(Robert Hart，1835년 2월 20일 ~ 1911년 9월 20일)는 1863년부터 중국해관총세무사가 되어 48년간 그 직에 있었다. 그는 근대 중국세관에서 가장 영향력이 있고 권력 있는 영국인이다. 하트는 1854년 5월 영국을 떠나 중국으로 건너 온 후 청나라가 멸망하기 3년전인 1908년에 세상을 떠났기에 그는 반세기가 넘는 세월을 중국에서 보냈다. 그는 일생의 70%이라는 시간을 중국에서 보냈으며 또 그 중에서 2/3의 시간은 중국 세관의 대권을 장악한 근대 중국과 서양과의 관계역사상 아주 중요한 역할을 한 풍운아였다. 본 글에서는 지난 백 여 년 동안 중국사회에 대해 큰 영향을 준 중국에 온 30여명의 외국인을 선출하여 그들이 중국에서의 사적으로 그림과 글을 병행하는 서술로써 다양한 인물형상을 다채롭게 서술하고 입체적으로 묘사하였다. 4. 참고 문헌 (1) 로이드 이스트만 지음, 이승휘 옮김, 중국사회의 지속과 변화, 돌베개, 1999. (2) 조나던 스펜서 지음, 주원준 옮김, 머태오 리치 기억의 궁전, 이산, 1999. (3) 조셉 니담 지음, 이석호 옮김, 중국의 과학과 문명, 을유문화사, 2011. (4) 퍼킨스 지음, 양필승 옮김, 중국경제사 1368~1968, 신서원, 1997. (5) 히라가와 스케히로 지음, 노영희 옮김, 마테오 리치, 동아시아, 2002.
지난 백 여 년 동안 중국사회에 대해 큰 영향을 준 중국에 온 30여명의 외국인을 선출하여 그들이 중국에서의 사적으로 그림과 글을 병행하는 서술로써 다양한 인물형상을 다채롭게 서술하고 입체적으로 묘사하기에 심혈을 기울였다. 기원전 53년, 한대(漢代)에서 시작된 로마군대가 이란을 침입한 후 이란군대에게 포위공격을 당하고 그중에서 6,000여명의 로마군대가 포위망을 뚫고 지금의 카자흐스탄으로 도망쳤다.기원전 33년, 서한 서역도호의 부교위(副校尉)인 진탕(陳湯)이 군대를 이끌고 서쪽으로 가다가 로마군대와 맞닥뜨려 싸웠는데 그때 항복한 로마병사를 중국으로 끌고 와서 영창현(永昌縣)에 안치하였다. 그 후 이 로마병사들이 점차 한(漢)씨 성으로 바뀌었다. 한대(漢代)에 이르러서, 중국에 온 "외국인"들은 위에서 말한 것처럼 항복하여 중국으로 건너온 로마병사와 나머지는 모두 동양에서 온 아시아인으로서 주로 인도의 스님이나 서아시아에서 온 상인과 사신들이었다.파란 눈과 빨간 머리카락을 가진 서양인은 원(元)나라 때의 마르코폴로다원나라(元; 중국 대륙을 지배한 제국으로서는 1260년~1368년, 일반 유목국가로는 1260년~1635년), 대원제국(大元帝國, 현대 몽골어: Их Юань улс) 또는 대원대몽골국(大元大蒙古國, 중세 몽골어: Dai-ön Yeke Mongγol Ulus)는 13세기 몽골이 세운 대제국이다. 일반적으로 13세기 중반부터 14세기 중반까지 몽골이 중원을 지배하고 통치한 시기를 말한다. 몽골족의 정복 황조 원나라는 중국 대륙과 몽골 고원을 중심으로한 영역을 지배하다가 명나라를 건국하는 주원장(朱元璋)에게 쫓겨 북쪽으로 이전한 뒤("북원"), 유목민 국가로1635년까지 존속한 몽골인 황조로서, 몽골 제국의 대칸 직할 세습령이었다.
원나라는 송나라를 멸망시킨 이민족의 정복 국가이며, 중국 대륙을 자체 병탄하였다. 이후 주원장의 명나라에게 중원의 패권을 사실상 넘겨주게 된다. 원나라는 중국 대륙을 지배했으되 한족에 동화되지는 않았으며, 지배층뿐 아니라, 제도 및 문화에서도 기존 몽골 제국의 유목 국가적인 특성을 유지했다.
한족에게 이 시기는 몽골족에게 지배를 당한 치욕의 시대라고도 할 수 있다. 이 시기 한족의 인구가 급감하였으며, 극심한 민족 차별 정책으로, 한족은 하층 민족으로 구분되어서 노예와 같은 생활을 했다. 그로 인해 한족식 이름을 사용하지 못하고 몽골식 이름으로 바꿔야 했다. 몽골인은 한족이 반란을 일으키지 못하도록 항상 감시하였다. 대표적인 예로 여러 사람이 모이는 것도 금지시키고 야간 통금 제도를 시행하여 해가 지면 돌아다닐 수 없게 하였다.
공자(孔子) 또는 공부자(孔夫子: 기원전 551년 ~ 기원전 479년)는 유교의 시조(始祖)인 고대중국 춘추시대의 정치가 · 사상가 · 교육자이고[1], 주나라의 문신이자 작가이면서 시인이기도 하다. 흔히 유교의 시조로 알려져 있으나, 어떤 관점에서 보더라도 유가의 성격이나 철학이 일반적인 종교들과 유사히 취급될 수 없다는 점에서 20세기 중반 이후에는 이처럼 호칭하는 학자는 거의 없다. 유가 사상과 법가 사상의 공동 선조였다.
http://ko.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A3%BC%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC
유교(儒敎)는 중국 춘추시대(기원전 770~403) 말기에 공자(孔子)가 체계화한 사상인 유학(儒學)을 종교적 관점에서 이르는 말이다. 시조 공자의 이름을 따서 공교(孔敎)라고도 한다.[1] 지켜야 할 인륜의 명분(名分)에 대한 가르침이라고 하여 명교(名敎)라고도 한다.[2]
이름구(丘), 자는 중니(仲尼)시대춘추 시대지역동양 철학학파유학의 창시자, 유가와 법가의 공동 시조연구 분야철학, 정치학, 윤리학, 법학
영향 받은 분야·인물
영향을 준 분야·인물
공자(孔子) 또는 공부자(孔夫子: 기원전 551년 ~ 기원전 479년)는 유교의 시조(始祖)인 고대중국 춘추시대의 정치가 · 사상가 · 교육자이고[1], 주나라의 문신이자 작가이면서 시인이기도 하다. 흔히 유교의 시조로 알려져 있으나, 어떤 관점에서 보더라도 유가의 성격이나 철학이 일반적인 종교들과 유사히 취급될 수 없다는 점에서 20세기 중반 이후에는 이처럼 호칭하는 학자는 거의 없다. 유가 사상과 법가 사상의 공동 선조였다.
주공(周公)을
http://m.blog.naver.com/wib0124/110116579601
http://ko.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B6%98%EC%B6%94%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80
아이누(러시아어: Айны 아이늬[*] 일본어: アイヌあいぬ 아이누[*], [ʔáinu])은 오늘날의 일본 홋카이도와혼슈의 도호쿠 지방(東北地方), 러시아의 쿠릴 열도, 사할린 섬, 캄차카 반도에 정착해 살던 선주민이다. 일본의 주를 이루는 야마토 민족과는 다른 북방 몽골리안의 한 민족으로, 역사적으로 개별적인 부족 국가 형태를 지녔으며, 독자적인 언어인 아이누어를 가지고 있다.
류큐민족(일본어: 琉球民族りゅうきゅうみんぞく) 또는 류큐인(琉球人, 오키나와어: ウチナンチュー 우치난츄, 중국어:琉球族; 류츄주)은 현 일본의 오키나와 현과 아마미 제도(가고시마 현)에 주로 정착해 살아오고 있는 민족을 뜻한다. 좁은 의미로 오키나와인이라고도 하며, 이는 류큐인중 오키나와 섬 거주인을 이야기한다.
고구려는 372년(소수림왕 2년)에 태학(太學)을 세워 자제를 교육하였고,[1] 또한 지방 곳곳에 경당을 두어 청년들에게 유교 경전(經典)과 궁술(弓術)을 연마시켰다. 이것은 유교의 경전과 6예(六藝)로써 국민교육을 실시하였음을 의미한다.
백제도 거의 같은 시기인 근초고왕 때 박사 왕인(王仁)이 일본으로 《논어》(論語)와 《천자문》(千字文)을 전수하였다는 사실로 보아 유교 경전을 연구하는 기관이 설치되고, 유학사상이 널리 보급되었음을 미루어 생각할 수 있다.
신라의 국학(國學) 설립은 682년(신문왕 2년)[2]으로서 교과내용이 오경(五經)으로 되어 있으며,논어·효경(孝經)을 필수로 하였던 것이다. 또한 설총은 이두로써 구경(九經)을 설명하였다. 이미진흥왕 때 화랑 제도를 창설함에 있어서 “효제충신은 나라 다스림의 대요(敎之以 孝悌忠信 亦理國之大要也)”라고 하여 유교 이념을 근본으로 했던 것이며, 화랑들이 연마한 것은 임신서기석(壬申誓記石)에서 볼 수 있듯이 유교경전이었던 것이다. 또한 진흥왕 순수비 속에 나오는 “몸을 닦아 백성을 편안케 한다(修己以安百姓)”란 논어의 구절이나, '충신정성(忠臣精誠)'·'위국진절(爲國盡節)' 등의 용어가 나오는 것은 치국의 이념으로서 유교사상이 기초가 되고 있었음을 보여 주는 것이다.
이와 같이 유교 사상은 이미 삼국시대에 오경사상(五經思想)을 중심으로 하여 정치이념이 되었으며, 국민을 교육하는 원리가 되었음을 알 수 있다. 원래 유교에서는 효(孝)의 관념을 중시하거니와 삼국시대에 있어서 국가의 체제가 정비되어 감에 따라 그 기반을 확고히 할 뿐 아니라, 국력을 신장하고 국가를 수호한다는 필요성에 의하여 효(孝於家)와 더불어 충(忠於國)의 의미가 더욱 강조되었다. 충과 효는 삼국시대로부터 내려온 한국 유교의 보편적 정신이라고 할 수 있다.
조선의 유교는 철학이 중심이었고 그 철학은 하나의 학문으로서만이 아니라 실제 행동으로 민중을 움직이기도 하는 특성을 보인다. 국정의 부패를 규탄하는 유생들의 상소라든가 국권을 침해되었을 때 항거하는 의로운 행동을 보여줌은 한국 유교사(儒敎史)의 면목이기도 한다．
정도전과 함께 조선 문교의 터를 개척한 권근(權近)도 또한 유학에 연구가 깊었으니 그의 유학상의 저술로서는 사서(四書)와 오경(五經)의 구결(口訣) 및 《오경천견록(五經淺見錄)》, 《입학도설(入學圖說)》 등이 있고, 외에 정도전의 저술인 《심기리편》에 주(註)를 단 것이 있다.
정몽주의 뒤에 길재(吉再)는 고려말에 과거에 급제하였다가 왕조가 바뀌자 사직하고 고향에 돌아가 절개를 지키며 후진 양성에 전력하니, 그 문인에 김숙자(金淑滋)와 그 아들 김종직(金宗直)이 나와 사림파의 정통(正統)을 만들었다.
아사달(阿斯達)은 단군이 세운 고조선(古朝鮮)의 수도로 전해지고 있다.
백악산아사달(白岳山阿斯達),궁홀산(弓忽山), 금며달(今㫆達)이라고도 한다.
황해도(黃海道)는 1417년부터 1954년까지 존속한 한반도의 중서부에 있는 도(道)로, 해서(海西)와 패서(浿西)에 해당되며, 1954년 이후로는 황해남도와 황해북도로 분리되었다.
도(道)*
시(市)**
http://ko.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84_(%ED%96%89%EC%A0%95_%EA%B5%AC%EC%97%AD)
환관 (宦官)
eunuch
진(秦)나라 환관 조고(趙高)가 이세(二世) 황제 호해(胡亥)에게 사슴을 가리켜 말이라고 한 지록위마(指鹿爲馬)의 고사도...
환관 조고(趙高)중국을 통일한 진나라 때의 환관인데 '간신'으로 더 잘 알려져 있다. 시황제가 그렇게 말년에 신경쓰던 망진자호 - 진을 망하게 할 자는 호 일...
중국 역사 개관 - 진(秦) 나라 이사(李斯) 와 조고(趙高) - 장한우 작성조고(趙高)와의 권력 싸움에 패하고 살해되었다. 생전에는 유학자... 조고(趙高)와 함께 거짓 조서(詔書)를 만들고, 호해(胡亥를 즉위 시켜 진(秦)...
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao_Gao
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_relations
History of the Priamurye region
(also including Heilongjiang,
Amur Oblast and southern part of Khabarovsk Krai Sushen
Mohe •
Shiwei
Balhae
Khitan
Liao dynasty •
Daurs
Jin dynasty (1115–1234) •
Nivkh
Eastern Jin (1215–1234)
Yuan dynasty •
Evenks
Yeren
Jurchens •
Solon Khanate
Qing dynasty •
Nanais •
Ulchs
Russian Exploration •
Negidals
Manchus-Cossacks wars (1652–1689)
NerchinskGovernment-General of Eastern Siberia
AigunLi-Lobanov Treaty
Siberian Regional Government
Far-Eastern Republic
Far-Eastern Oblast
Soviet invasion of Manchuria (1945)
Sino-Soviet border conflict
Far Eastern Federal District
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oroch_people
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ummah
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangians
Engaging in trade, piracy, and mercenary activities, Varangians roamed the river systems and portages of Gardariki, as the areas north of the Black Sea were known in the Norse sagas. They controlled the Volga trade route (Route from the Varangians to the Arabs), connecting the Baltic to the Caspian Sea, and the Dnieper trade route (Route from the Varangians to the Greeks) leading to the Black Sea andConstantinople.
A caliphate (in Arabic: خلافة khilāfa, meaning "succession") is an Islamic state led by asupreme religious and political leader known as a caliph – i.e. "successor" – toMuhammad. The succession of Muslim empires that have existed in the Muslim world are usually described as "caliphates". Conceptually, a caliphate represents asovereign state of the entire Muslim faithful, (the Ummah), ruled by a caliph under Islamic law (sharia).[citation need
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muslim_empires_and_dynasties
Languages
Latin Romance Germanic Baltic some Slavic languages some African, Austronesian and Austroasiatic languages
Time period
c. 700 BC – present
Parent systems
Phoenician alphabetGreek alphabetEtruscan alphabetLatin
The classical Latin alphabet, also known as the Roman alphabet, is a writing system which evolved from the Cumaean version of the Greek alphabet. The Cumaean script was descended from the Phoenician alphabet. The Cumaean alphabet was adopted and modified by the Etruscans who ruled early Rome. The Etruscan alphabet was in turn adopted and further modified by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language.
During the Middle Ages, the Latin alphabet was adapted to Romance languages, direct descendants of Latin, as well as to Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and some Slavic languages. With the age of colonialism and Christian evangelism, the Latin script was spread overseas, and applied to indigenous American, Australian, Austronesian,Austroasiatic, and African languages. More recently, linguists have also tended to prefer the Latin script or the International Phonetic Alphabet (itself largely based on Latin script) when transcribing or creating written standards for non-European languages, such as the African reference alphabet.
The term Latin alphabet may refer to either the alphabet used to write Latin (as described in this article), or other alphabets based on the Latin script, which is the basic set of letters common to the various alphabets descended from the classical Latin one, such as the English alphabet. These Latin alphabets may discard letters, like the Rotokas alphabet, or add new letters, like the Danish and Norwegianalphabets. Letter shapes have changed over the centuries, including the creation forMedieval Latin of lower case forms which did not exist in the Classical period.
The Latin alphabet spread, along with the Latin language, from the Italian Peninsulato the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The eastern half of the Empire, including Greece, Turkey, the Levant, andEgypt, continued to use Greek as a lingua franca, but Latin was widely spoken in the western half, and as the western Romance languages evolved out of Latin, they continued to use and adapt the Latin alphabet.
With the spread of Western Christianity during the Middle Ages, the script was gradually adopted by the peoples of northern Europe who spoke Celtic languages(displacing the Ogham alphabet) or Germanic languages (displacing earlier Runic alphabets), Baltic languages, as well as by the speakers of several Uralic languages, most notably Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian.
The alphabet also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, as the people who spoke them adopted Roman Catholicism.
The West Slavic languages are a subdivision of the Slavic language group that includes Czech, Polish, Slovak, Kashubian, Silesian and Sorbian.
West SlavicGeographic
distribution:Eastern EuropeLinguistic classificationIndo-EuropeanBalto-SlavicSlavicWest SlavicSubdivisions:Czech–SlovakSorbian
SlavicEthnicity:SlavsGeographic
distribution:Throughout Central and Eastern Europe and Russia
Proto-language:Old East SlavicSubdivisions:Belarusian (either a separate language or a dialect of Ukrainian)Old East Slavic
The existing East Slavic languages are Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian;[2] Rusyn is considered to be either a separate language or a dialect of Ukrainian.[3]
The East Slavic languages descend from a common predecessor, the language of the medieval Kievan Rus' (9th to 13th centuries).
All these languages use the Cyrillic script, but with particular modifications.
The South Slavic languages are one of three branches of the Slavic languages. There are approximately 30 million speakers, mainly in the Balkans. These are separated geographically from speakers of the other two Slavic branches (West and East) by a belt of German, Hungarian and Romanian speakers. The first South Slavic language to be written (the first Slavic language) was the dialect spoken in Thessalonica, now called Old Church Slavonic, in the ninth century AD. It is retained as a liturgical language in some South Slavic Orthodox churches in the form of various localChurch Slavonic traditions.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Slavic_languages
The Etruscan language /ɨˈtrʌskən/[3] was the spoken and written language of theEtruscan civilization, in Italy, in the ancient region of Etruria (modern Tuscany plus western Umbria and northern Latium) and in parts of Lombardy, Veneto, and Emilia-Romagna (where the Etruscans were displaced by Gauls). Etruscan influenced Latin, but was eventually completely superseded by it. The Etruscans left around 10000 inscriptions which have been found so far, only a handful of which are of significant length, some bilingual inscriptions with texts also in Latin, Greek or Phoenician, and a few dozen loanwords, such as the name Roma (from Etruscan Ruma), but Etruscan's influence was significant.
Attested from 700 BC to AD 50, the language has historically been referred to as anisolate, but consensus now holds that it is one of the Tyrsenian languages,[4][5][6]along with the Raetic language of the Alps and the Lemnian language of the Aegean island of Lemnos.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_origins
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Etruscan_origin
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Etruscan_names_for_Greek_heroes
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Belgica
2 Belgic-Franks-Germanic Tribes (1of2; Nervii-French Hainault Northern Gaul-Eastern Rhine Germany controlled by Roman)/ (2of2 Treviti -West Rhine -Western Germany-Celtic-Gdrmanic-Frank-Belgic Tribe)
The Nervii were one of the most powerful Belgic tribes, living in northern Gaul at the time of its conquest by Rome. Their territory corresponds to the central part of modern Belgium, including Brussels, and stretched southwards into French Hainault.
The Treveri or Treviri were a Belgic tribe who inhabited the lower valley of theMoselle from around 150 BCE, if not earlier,[1] until their eventual absorption into theFranks.[2] Their domain lay within the southern fringes of the Silva Arduenna(Ardennes Forest), a part of the vast Silva Carbonaria, in what are now Luxembourg, southeastern Belgium and western Germany;[3] its centre was the city of Trier), to which the Treveri give their name.[4] Celtic in language,[5]according to Tacitus they claimed Germanic descent.[
The Rurikid dynasty was founded in 862 by Rurik, a Varangian prince. Folk history tells of the Finnic and Slavic tribes in the area calling on "'the Varangians [i.e. Scandinavians], to the Rus' … The Chud, the Slovenes, the Krivichi and the Ves said "Our land is vast and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come and reign as princes and have authority over us!"' Three brothers came with 'their kin' and 'all the Rus' in response to this invitation. Rurik set up rule in Novgorod, giving more provincial towns to his brothers. There is some ambiguity even in the Primary Chronicle about the specifics of the story, "hence their paradoxical statement 'the people of Novgorod are of Varangian stock, for formerly they were Slovenes.'" However, archaeological evidence such as "Frankish swords, a sword chape and a tortoiseshell brooch" in the area suggest that there was, in fact, a Scandinavian population during the tenth century at the latest.[3] The "Rurikid Dynasty DNA Project" of FamilyTreeDNAcommercial genetic genealogy company reports that Y-DNA testing of the descendants of Rurikids suggests their non-Slavic origin
The Franks (Latin: Franci or gens Francorum) were a confederation of Germanic tribes occupying land in the Lower and Middle Rhine in the 3rd century AD. Some Franks raided Roman territory, while other Frank tribes joined the Roman troops in what was called Gaul (currently France).
The Germanic peoples (also called Teutonic, Suebian or Gothic in older literature) are[1] an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanicstarting during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.[2]
The term "Germanic" originated in classical times, when groups of tribes were referred to using this term by Roman authors. For them, the term was not necessarily based upon language, but rather referred to tribal groups and alliances who were considered less civilized, and more physically hardened, than the Celtic Gauls living in the region of modern France. Tribes referred to as Germanic in that period lived generally to the north and east of the Gauls.
In modern times the term occasionally has been used to refer to ethnic groups who speak a Germanic language and claim ancestral and cultural connections to ancient Germanic peoples.[3] Within this context, modern Germanic peoples include theNorwegians, Swedes, Danes, Icelanders, Germans, Austrians, English, Dutch,Afrikaners, Flemish, Frisians, Scots language speakers and others.
First, Germania was a geographical area of land on the east bank of the Rhine from Gaul, and outside Roman control. This usage of the word is the origin of the modern concept of Germanic languages, but it was not defined strictly by language. Under other classical authors this sometimes included regions of Sarmatia as well as an area under Roman control on the west bank of the Rhine. Also, at least in the south there were Celtic peoples still living east of the Rhine and north of the Alps. Caesar, Tacitus and others did note differences of culture which could be found on the east of the Rhine. But all of these cultural notes were around the theme that this was a wild and dangerous region, less civilised than Gaul, and requiring of military vigilance in Rome and Gaul.
Second, Caesar uses the term Germani, for a very specific tribal grouping in northeastern Belgic Gaul, west of the Rhine, the largest part of which were theEburones, making clear that he was using the name in the local way. These are the so-called Germani Cisrhenani.[10] Tacitus suggests that this was the original way the word "Germani" was used – as the name of a single tribal nation, ancestral to theTungri (who lived in the same area as the earlier Germani reported by Caesar), and not a whole race (gentis). He also suggested that two large Belgic tribes neighbouring Caesar's Germani, the Nervii and the Treveri, liked to call themselves Germanic in his time, in order not to be associated with Gaulish indolence.[11] Caesar described this group of tribes both as Belgic Gauls, and Germani. Gauls are associated with Celtic languages, and the term Germani is associated with Germanic languages, but Caesar did not discuss languages in detail (though he did say that Belgic Gaul was different from Celtic Gaul in language).
The Nervii were one of the most powerful Belgic tribes, living in northern Gaul at the time of its conquest by Rome. Their territory corresponds to the central part of modern Belgium, including Brussels, and stretched southwards into French Hainault.
French Hainaut is one of two areas in France that form the département du Nord. It corresponds roughly with the Arrondissement of Avesnes-sur-Helpe, Arrondissement of Cambrai and Arrondissement of Valenciennes.
Until the 17th century it was an integral part of the County of Hainaut, ruled by theBurgundians and later the Habsburgs. However, in a series of wars between France and Spain, the southern part of Hainaut was conquered by France, as were French Flanders and the Bishopric of Cambrai.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangri-La
Engaging in trade, piracy, and mercenary activities, Varangians roamed the river systems and portages of Gardariki, as the areas north of the Black Sea were known in the Norse sagas. They controlled the Volga trade route (Route from the Varangians to the Arabs), connecting the Baltic to the Caspian Sea, and the Dnieper trade route (Route from the Varangians to the Greeks) leading to the Black Sea andConstantinople.[
The Varangians or Varyags (Old Norse: Væringjar; Greek, Variagoi) was the name given by Greeks and East Slavs to Vikings,[1][2][3][4]who between the 9th and 11th centuries ruled the medieval state of Rus' and formed the Byzantine Varangian Guard.[5][6] According to the 12th century Kievan Primary Chronicle, a group of Varangians known as the Rus'[7] settled in Novgorod in 862 under the leadership of Rurik. Before Rurik, the Rus' might have ruled an earlierhypothetical polity. Rurik's relative Oleg conquered Kiev in 882 and established the state of Kievan Rus', which was later ruled by Rurik's descendants.[8][
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangians
The four tribes who had been forced to pay tribute to the Varangians—Chuds, Slavs, Merians, and Krivichs—drove the Varangians back beyond the sea, refused to pay them further tribute, and set out to govern themselves. But there was no law among them, and tribe rose against tribe. Discord thus ensued among them, and they began to war one against the other. They said to themselves, "Let us seek a prince who may rule over us, and judge us according to custom". Thus they went overseas to the Varangians, to the Rus. These particular Varangians were known as Rus, just as some are called Swedes, and othersNormans and Angles, and still others Gutes, for they were thus named. The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Veps then said to the Rus, "Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come reign as princes, rule over us". Three brothers, with their kinfolk, were selected. They brought with them all the Rus and migrated.
—The Primary Chronicle[9]
Later, the Primary Chronicle tells us, they conquered Kiev and created the state ofKievan Rus' (which, as most historians agree,[citation needed] was preceded by the Rus' Khaganate). The territory they conquered was named after them as were, eventually, the local people (see Etymology of Rus and derivatives for further details).
Islamic sources
Further information: Caspian expeditions of the Rus'
Ship burial of a Rus chieftain as described by the Arab traveler Ahmad ibn Fadlan who visited Kievan Rus' in the 10th century.
Henryk Siemiradzki (1883)
Ibn Haukal and two other early Islamic sources such as Muhammad al-Idrisi, who would follow them later, distinguish three groups of the Rus: Kuyavia, Slavia, and Arcania. In the mainstream Russian-Soviet historiography (as represented by Boris Rybakov), these were tentatively identified with the "tribal centres" at Kiev, Novgorodand Tmutarakan.
The Muslim diplomat and traveller Ahmad ibn Fadlan, who visited Volga Bulgaria in 922, described the Rus' (Rusiyyah) in terms said to suggest Norsemen:
I have seen the Rus as they came on their merchant journeys and encamped by the Itil. I have never seen more perfect physical specimens, tall as date palms, blond and ruddy; they wear neither tunics nor caftans, but the men wear a garment which covers one side of the body and leaves a hand free. Each man has an axe, a sword, and a knife, and keeps each by him at all times. The swords are broad and grooved, of Frankish sort. Each woman wears on either breast a box of iron, silver, copper, or gold; the value of the box indicates the wealth of the husband. Each box has a ring from which depends a knife. The women wear neck-rings of gold and silver. Their most prized ornaments are green glass beads. They string them as necklaces for their women.
—Gwyn Jones, A History of the Vikings[10]
Apart from Ibn Fadlan's account, the Normanist theory draws heavily on the evidence of the Persian traveler Ibn Rustah who allegedly visited Novgorod (or Tmutarakan, according to George Vernadsky) and described how the Rus' exploited the Slavs.
As for the Rus, they live on an island ... that takes three days to walk round and is covered with thick undergrowth and forests; it is most unhealthy. ... They harry the Slavs, using ships to reach them; they carry them off as slaves and…sell them. They have no fields but simply live on what they get from the Slav's lands. ... When a son is born, the father will go up to the newborn baby, sword in hand; throwing it down, he says, "I shall not leave you with any property: You have only what you can provide with this weapon."
—Ibn Rustah, National Geographic[11]
In his 891 Treatise on the Regions, the Muslim geographer Ya'qubi mentions the 844 sack of Seville by Vikings, noting that the city was penetrated by "al-Majus [Vikings] who are called al-Rus, who took captives slaughtered, burnt and plundered."[12]
Byzantine sourcesFurther information: Rus'–Byzantine War and Rus'–Byzantine TreatyWhen the Varangians first appeared in Constantinople (the Paphlagonian expedition of the Rus' in the 820s and the Siege of Constantinople in 860), the Byzantines seem to have perceived the Rhos (Greek: Ῥώς) as a different people from the Slavs. At least no source says they are part of the Slavic race. Characteristically, pseudo-Symeon Magister refers to the Rhos as Δρομῖται (transliterated as Dromitai), a word related to the Greek word meaning a run, suggesting the mobility of their movement by waterways.
In his treatise De Administrando Imperio, Constantine VII describes the Rhos as the neighbours of Pechenegs who buy from the latter cows, horses, and sheep "because none of these animals may be found in Rhosia". His description represents the Rus' as a warlike northern tribe. Constantine also enumerates the names of the Dniepercataracts in both Rhos and in Slavic languages. The Rhos names have distinct Germanic etymology:[13]
Essoupi (Old Norse vesuppi, "do not sleep")Oulvorsi (Old Norse holmfors, "island rapid")Gelandri (Old Norse gjallandi, "yelling, loudly ringing")Aeifor (Old Norse eiforrVarouforos (Old Norse varufors, "cliff rapid" or barufors, "wave rapid")Leanti (Old Norse leandi, "seething", or hlæjandiStroukoun (Old Norse strukum, "rapid current").
The Rus'–Byzantine Treaties give a valuable insight into the names of the Rus'. Of the fourteen Rus' signatories to the Rus'–Byzantine Treaty in 907, all had Norse names.[14] By the Rus'–Byzantine Treaty (945) in 945, some signatories of the Rus' had Slavic names while the vast majority had Norse names.[14]
Western European sources
The first Western European source to mention the Rus' are the Annals of St. Bertin. These relate that Emperor Louis the Pious' court at Ingelheim, in 839, was visited by a delegation from the Byzantine emperor. In this delegation there were two men who called themselves Rhos (Rhos vocari dicebant). Louis enquired about their origins and learnt that they were Swedes. Fearing that they were spies for their brothers, theDanes, he incarcerated them. Subsequently, in the 10th and 11th centuries, Latin sources routinely confused the Rus' with the extinct East Germanic tribe of Rugians, for instance, was designated in one manuscript as a Rugian queen.
Another source comes from Liutprand of Cremona, a 10th-century Lombard bishop who in a report from Constantinople to Holy Roman Emperor Otto I wrote that he had met "the Russians whom we know by the other name of Norsemen.[15]
According to the most prevalent theory, the name Rus', like the Finnish name forSweden (Ruotsi), is derived from an Old Norse term for "the men who row" (rods-) as rowing was the main method of navigating the rivers of Eastern Europe, and that it could be linked to the Swedish coastal area of Roslagen (Rus-law) or Roden, as it was known in earlier times.[6][7] The name Rus' would then have the same origin as the Finnish and Estonian names for Sweden: Ruotsi and Rootsi.[8]
Another theory is that the name comes from the Sarmatian of the Roxolani, who inhabited southern Ukraine, Moldova and Romania (from the Old Persian rokhs, meaning light, white, dirty blond).
The Rus' (Slavic: Русь; Greek: Ῥῶς) are an ancient people who gave their name to the lands of Russia and Belarus. Their origin and identity are much in dispute. Some Russian scholars, along with some Westerners, consider the Rus to be a southeastern Slavic tribe that founded a tribal league, the Kievan state. Ibn Khordadbeh, a Persian geographer of the 9th century, also believed the Rus people were Slavic[citation needed]. Traditional Western scholars believe them to be a group ofVarangians, supposed to be Norsemen.[1][2] According to the Primary Chronicle ofRus', compiled in about 1113 AD, the Rus' had relocated "from over sea", first to northeastern Europe, creating an early polity that finally came under the leadership ofRurik. Later, Rurik's relative Oleg captured Kiev, founding Kievan Rus'.[3][4] The descendants of Rurik were the ruling dynasty of Rus' (after 862), and of principalities created in the area formerly occupied by Kievan Rus', Galicia-Volhynia (after 1199),Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal, Grand Duchy of Moscow, and the founders of theTsardom of Russia.[5]
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_language
Old Indic (ca. 1500–300 BCE)early Old Indic: Vedic Sanskrit (1500 to 500 BCE)late Old Indic: Epic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit (500 to 300 BCE)Middle Indo-Aryan or Prakrits (ca. 300 BCE to 1500 CE) [see]Early Modern Indic (Mughal periodearly Dakkhini (Kalmitul-hakayat 1580)emergence of Khariboli (Gora-badal ki kathaemergence of "Urdu" at Delhi fort (1670s)Old Indo-Aryan
The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages which is used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda (and almost identical), but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords.
In about the 4th century BCE, the Vedic Sanskrit language was codified and standardized by the grammarian Panini, called "Classical Sanskrit" by convention.
Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)
Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languagesPali and Ardha Magadhi, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects. "Apabhramsa" is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Sravakachar of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.
The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Mughal empire,Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoptation of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects.
The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali andHindustani; others include Gujarati, Oriya, Marathi, and Punjabi.
New Indo-AryanDialect continuum
The Indo-Aryan languages of Northern India (that includes Assam Valley as for the language Assamese) and Pakistan form a dialect continuum. What is called "Hindi" in India is frequently Standard Hindi, the Sanskrit-ized version of the colloquialHindustani spoken in the Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from Bihar to Rajasthan. The Indo-Aryan prakrits also gave rise to languages like Gujarati, Assamese, Bengali, Oriya,Nepali, Marathi, and Punjabi, which are not considered to be part of this dialect continuum.
Standard Hindi-Urdu
See also: History of Hindi and History of Urdu
In the Hindi-speaking areas, the prestige dialect was long Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by Khari Boli–based Hindustani. This state of affairs continued until the Partition of India in 1947, when Hindi continued as an official language of India and Pakistan but renamed Urdu in Pakistan. In contemporary times, there is a continuum of Hindi–Urdu, with heavily-Persianised Urdu at one end and Sanskritised Hindi at the other, although the basic grammar remains identical. Most speakers of Hindustani speak something in between these extremes.
Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni
Main article: Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni
Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over theHurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between theHittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general [3]
The Indo-Aryan (or Indic) languages are the dominant language family of the Indian subcontinent, spoken largely by Indo-Aryan people. They constitute a branch of theIndo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan speakers form about one half of all Indo-European speakers (approx 1.5 of 3 billion), and more than half of all Indo-European languages recognized byEthnologue.
The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects. There are about 439 languages and dialects, according to the 2009Ethnologue estimate, about half (221) belonging to the Indo-Aryan subbranch.[2] It includes most major current languages of Europe, the Middle East, and the Indian Subcontinent, and was also predominant in ancient Anatolia. With written attestations appearing since the Bronze Age in the form of the Anatolian languagesand Mycenaean Greek, the Indo-European family is significant to the field ofhistorical linguistics as possessing the second-longest recorded history
Indo-EuropeanGeographic
distribution:Before the 16th century, Europe, South, Central and Southwest Asia; today worldwide.Linguistic classificationOne of the world's major language familiesProto-language:Proto-Indo-EuropeanSubdivisions:Albanian (extinct)Balto-Slavic (Baltic and SlavicIndo-Iranian (Iranian and Indo-Aryan (includes Romance (extinct)
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages
Volgograd (Russian: Волгогра́д; IPA: [vəlɡɐˈɡrat] ( )), formerly Tsaritsyn (Russian: Цари́цын ), 1589–1925, and Stalingrad (Russian: Сталингра́д ), 1925–1961, is an important industrial city and the administrative center of Volgograd Oblast, Russia. It is 80 kilometers (50 mi) long,[10] north to south. It is situated on the western bank of the Volga River.
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad
The Volga River is the longest river in Europe. It belongs to the closed basin of theCaspian Sea. Rising in the Valdai Hills 225 meters (738 ft) above sea level northwest of Moscow and about 320 kilometers (200 mi) southeast of Saint Petersburg, the Volga heads east past Lake Sterzh, Tver, Dubna, Rybinsk, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, and Kazan. From there it turns south, flows past Ulyanovsk, Tolyatti, Saratov and Volgograd, and discharges into the Caspian Sea belowAstrakhan at 28 meters (92 ft) below sea level. At its most strategic point, it bends toward the Don ("the big bend").
The Turkic peoples living along the river formerly referred to it as Itil or Atil "big river". In modern Turkic languages, the Volga is known as İdel (Идел) in Tatar) in Chuvash, Idhel in Bashkir, Edil in Kazakh, and İdil in Turkish. The Turkic peoples associated the Itil's origin with the Kama River. Thus, a left tributary to the Kama River was named the Aq Itil "White Itil" which unites with the Kara Itil "Black Itil" at the modern city of Ufa. The name Indyl (Indɨl) is used in Adyge (Cherkess) language.
Among Asians the river was known by its other Turkic name Sarı-su "yellow water", but Oirats also used their own name: Ijil mörön "adaptation river". Presently the Mari, another Uralic group, call the river Юл (Jul), meaning "way" in Tatar. Formerly, they called the river Volgydo, a borrowing from Old Russian.
Simbirsk was founded in 1648 by the boyar Bogdan Khitrovo.[citation needed] The fort of "Simbirsk" (alternatively "Sinbirsk") was strategically placed on a hill on the Western bank of the Volga River. The fort was meant to protect the eastern frontier of theRussian Empire from the nomadic tribes and to establish a permanent Imperial presence in the area.
In 1668, Simbirsk withstood a month-long siege by a 20,000-strong army led by rebelCossack commander Stenka Razin. Also in Simbirsk another country rebel, Yemelyan Pugachev, was imprisoned before execution. At the time Simbirsk possessed a wooden kremlin, which was destroyed by a fire during the 18th century.
As the eastern border of the Russian Empire was rapidly pushed into Siberia, Simbirsk rapidly lost its strategic importance, but nonetheless began to develop into an important regional center. Simbirsk was granted city status in 1796.
The city, originally founded as Simbirsk (Симби́рск), is the birthplace of Vladimir Lenin (originally named Ulyanov), for whom it was renamed in 1924.
BornVladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Владимир Ильич Ульянов)
22 April 1870
Simbirsk, Russian EmpireDied21 January 1924 (aged 53)
Gorki, Russian SFSR, Soviet UnionResting placeLenin's Mausoleum, Moscow, Russian FederationSoviet
RussianPolitical partyRussian Social Democratic Labour Party
BolsheviksSpouse(s)Nadezhda Krupskaya (married 1898–1924)OccupationRevolutionary, politicianProfessionLawyerNone (Atheist)
Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a smaller core of active members, as opposed to "card carriers" who might only be active in party branches from time to time or not at all. This active base would develop the cadre, a core of "professional revolutionaries", consisting of loyal communists who would spend most of their time organising the party toward a mass revolutionary party capable of leading a workers' revolution against the Tsaristautocracy.
The Bolsheviks, originally also[1] Bolshevists[2] or Bolsheviki[3] (Russian:большевики, большевик (singular); IPA: [bəlʲʂɨˈvʲik]; derived from большинствоbol'shinstvo, "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority") were a faction of theMarxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from theMenshevik faction[4] at the Second Party Congress in 1903.[5]
The Bolsheviks were the majority faction in a crucial vote, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[6] The Bolsheviks came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which would later become the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in 1922.
The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internalhierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism.
FounderVladimir LeninSlogan"Workers of the world, unite!"Founded1 January 1912Dissolved29 August 1991Preceded byRussian Social Democratic Labour PartyNewspaperPravdaYouth wingKomsomol
Young PioneersMembership19 million (1986)IdeologyCommunism,
Marxism–LeninismInternational affiliationComintern (until 1943), Cominform (until 1956), International Meeting of Communist & Workers' PartiesColoursRed and YellowAnthem"The Internationale"Politics of the Soviet Union
Political parties
Elections
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU)[note 1] was the founding and ruling political party of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The CPSU was the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990 when the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union annulled the law which granted the CPSU a monopoly over the political system. The party was founded in 1912 by the Bolsheviks, the majority faction of theRussian Social Democratic Labour Party—a revolutionary group led by Vladimir Leninwhich seized power in the aftermath of the October Revolution of 1917. The party was dissolved on 29 August 1991 as a result of the failed coup d'état earlier that month.
Alexandra Petrovna Kim (Russian: Александра Петровна Ким; February 22, 1885 – September 16, 1918) was a Korean revolutionary political activist. Having joined the Bolsheviks in 1916, she is recognized as the first Korean communist.[1]
Personal lifeEdit
She was born in Sinelnikovo, a Korean village in Siberia. At the time, the area was a hotbed of Korean nationalism. In 1869, her father, Kim Du Suh, had emigrated to Russia. He worked as a translator. Later he went to Manchuria to take part in fighting the Japanese forces. In 1895, Alexandra joined him in China. Soon after her arrival in China, Kim Du Suh died. Alexandra was adopted by Piotr Stankevich, a Russian friend of her father. She attended girl school in Vladivostok, Siberia. After finishing her education, she began working as a teacher in a primary school. She got married to Stankevich's son.[2][3][4]
Anita Tsoy was appointed as an "Ambassador of Korean Culture and Tourism" between Russia and South Korea by South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun during his official visit to Russia in 2004.[17]
It is announced on the singer's official site that a new album, called "Глубина"("Depth") is going to be recorded. The release date is not mentioned. Anita Tsoy is going to play in the upcoming "Michael Strogoff" French musical in 2010 – 2011.[
Anita "Anna" Sergeyevna Tsoy (Russian: Анита "Анна" Серге́евна Цой; born 7 February 1971, Moscow) is a Russian singer-songwriter of Korean descent.[1]
Parents and early lifeEdit
Her grandfather, seeking free education, emigrated from Korea to the Russian Far East. He, his wife and his children were later caught up in the 1937 deportation of theKoryo-saram to Central Asia.[2] Anita's mother was born in 1944 in Tashkent, Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union and successfully graduated from the Moscow State University and became a chemistry doctor.
Tsoi's mother did everything she could to make her daughter educated in all kinds of arts [2]. Anita's favourite one became music. She began violin lessons at a young age; she later studied piano, flute, and guitar.[3] She wasn't a loved one at school. Many classmates, being children of influential parents, often abused her. Most teachers weren't as friendly to her as they were to the other classmates.
When Tsoi became an adult, a tragedy happened: her mother was branded a "class enemy" in the 1970s in response to her record of speaking out in support of Nobel Peace Prize-winning dissident Andrei Sakharov. For her dissent, she was briefly committed to a mental institution and became a permanent invalid.[4] After leaving school Anita attended the teacher training college, then law school at Moscow State University, where she met her husband Sergey P. Tsoy.
Oleksandr Sin (Ukrainian: Олександр Чєнсанович Сін; born on April 12, 1961 inOrdzhonikidze, Ukrainian SSR[1]) is a Ukrainian politician and Mayor of Zaporizhiasince 2010.[2]
BiographyEdit
Sin is ethnically Korean.[3] In 1983 Sin graduated from the Physics Department of theKiev State University, in 2001 he graduated as economist in Zaporizhia State Engineering Academy, in 2005 he graduated as a state management magister inNational Academy of Public Administration, Office of the President of Ukraine.[1][4]After a career in the Soviet industry he became deputy mayor of Zaporizhia from 1994 till 1999 and till 2006 in the city's administration.[1] From 2006 till his election as Mayor Sin held various high post in the Zaporizhzhya Regional State Administration.[1]
In October 2010 Sin was elected Mayor of Zaporizhia as a candidate ofBatkivschyna.[5] In December 2010 Sin left this party "so that no political context is a source of provocations and insinuations about me. I am grateful to the party, that it supported my decision".[6]
In March 2012 Sin joined the Party of Regions.[7]
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilin
吉 (gil) (hangeul 길,
Map showing the location of Jilin ProvinceCoordinates: 43°42′N 126°12′ENamed forfrom girin ula, a Manchu phrase meaning "along the river"
• Ethnic compositionHan - 91%
Korean - 4%
Manchu - 4%
Mongol - 0.6%
Hui - 0.5% • Languages and dialectsNortheastern Mandarin, Hamgyŏng Korean
HamgyŏngNortheastern KoreanNative toNorth Korea, ChinaRegionHamgyŏng, Jilin
Native speakers
(no estimate available)
Language family
KoreanHamgyŏng
Dialects
Koryo-mar
Chosŏn'gŭl함경도 방언Hancha咸 方Revised RomanizationHamgyeongdo Bang'eonMcCune–ReischauerHamgyŏngdo Pang'ŏn
The Hamgyŏng dialects, or Northeastern Korean, is a dialect of the Korean languageused in southern North Hamgyŏng, South Hamgyŏng, and Ryanggang Provinces ofNorth Korea, as well as the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of northeast China. It is one of the more divergent dialects of Korean, and contains intonation, vocabulary, and grammatical differences that distinguish it from the standard Korean of the north or south.
Specific vocabulary differences include kinship terminology. For example, "father", in standard Korean abŏji (아버지), becomes abai (아바이) or aebi (애비).[2]
It is reflected in Koryo-mar, the dialect of Korean spoken by ethnic Koreans in the former USSR, as most of them are descendants of late 19th-century emigrants fromHamgyŏng province to the Russian Far East.[3] The first dictionary of Korean in a European language, Putsillo 1874's Attempt at a Russian-Korean Dictionary, was based largely on the Hamgyŏng dialect; the author lived in Vladivostok while composing it.[4]
The territory of Kazakhstan has historically been inhabited by nomadic tribes. This changed in the 13th century, when Genghis Khan occupied the country. Following internal struggles among the conquerors, power eventually reverted to the nomads. By the 16th century, the Kazakhs emerged as a distinct group, divided into three jüz(ancestor branches occupying specific territories). The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganized several times before becoming the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, an integral part of theSoviet Union.
Kazakhstan was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991; the current President, Nursultan Nazarbayev, has been leader of the country since then. Kazakhstan pursues a balanced foreign policy and works to develop its economy, especially its dominanthydrocarbon industry.[9]
Kazakhstan is populated by 131 ethnicities, including Kazakh (who make up 63 percent of the population), Russian, Uzbek, Ukrainian, German, Tatar, and Uyghur.[10]Islam is the religion of about 70 percent of the population, with Christianity practiced by 26 percent;[11] Kazakhstan allows freedom of religion. The Kazakh language is thestate language, while Russian has equal official status for all levels of administrative and institutional purposes.[3][12]
While the word "Kazakh" is generally used to refer to people of ethnic Kazakh descent, including those living in China, Russia, Turkey, Uzbekistan and other neighbouring countries, within the country both terms "Kazakh" or "Kazakhstani" (Kazakh: қазақстандық qazaqstandyk ; Russian: казахстанец kazakhstanyets) are being used to describe all citizens of Kazakhstan, including non-Kazakhs.[13] Theethnonym "Kazakh" is derived from an ancient Turkic word meaning "independent; a free spirit", reflecting the Kazakhs' nomadic horseback culture.[citation needed] ThePersian suffix "-stan" (see Indo-Iranian languages) means "land" or "place of", soKazakhstan means "land of the Kazakhs".
While the word "Kazakh" is generally used to refer to people of ethnic Kazakh descent, including those living in China, Russia, Turkey, Uzbekistan and other neighbouring countries, within the country both terms "Kazakh" or "Kazakhstani" (Kazakh: қазақстандық qazaqstandyk ; Russian: казахстанец kazakhstanyets) are being used to describe all citizens of Kazakhstan, including non-Kazakhs.[13] Theethnonym "Kazakh" is derived from an ancient Turkic word meaning "independent; a free spirit", reflecting the Kazakhs' nomadic horseback culture.[citation needed] ThePersian suffix "-stan" (see Indo-Iranian languages) means "land" or "place of", soKazakhstan means "land of the Kazakhs".
Indo-IranianAryanGeographic
distribution:Eastern Europe, West Asia, Central Asia, South AsiaLinguistic classificationIndo-EuropeanIndo-IranianProto-language:Proto-Indo-IranianSubdivisions:Indo-Aryan
The Indo-Iranian languages, or Indo-Iranic languages,[2][3] also known as the Aryanlanguages,[4] constitute the easternmost extant branch of the Indo-Europeanlanguage family. It is also the largest branch, with more than 1 billion speakers stretching from Europe (Jasz) and the Caucasus (Ossetian) eastward to Xinjiang) and Assam (Assamese) and south to Maldives (Dhivehi).
Indo-Iranian consists of three groups:
Indo-Aryan
The largest in terms of native speakers are Hindustani (Hindi–Urdu, ~590 million[5]),Bengali (205 million[6]), Punjabi (100 million), Marathi (75 million), Persian (60 million), Pashto (ca. 50 million), Gujarati (50 million), Kurdish (35 million),[7] Bhojpuri(40 million), Awadhi (40 million), Maithili (35 million), Oriya (35 million), Marwari (30 million), Sindhi (25 million), Rajasthani (20 million), Chhattisgarhi (18 million),Assamese (15 million), Sinhalese (16 million), Nepali (17 million), Balochi (30 million), and Rangpuri (15 million).
The Indo-Iranian languages derive from a reconstructed common proto-language, called Proto-Indo-Iranian.
Indo-Iranian languages were once spoken across an even wider area. The Scythians, were described by Roman writer Strabo as inhabiting the lands to the north of theBlack Sea in present-day Ukraine, Moldova and Romania. The river-names Don,Dnieper, Danube etc. are possibly of Indo-Iranian origin. The so-called Migration Period saw Indo-Iranian languages disappear from Eastern Europe, apart from the ancestor of Ossetian in the Caucasus, with the arrival of the Turkic-speakingPechenegs and others by the 8th century AD.
The oldest attested Indo-Iranian languages are Vedic Sanskrit (ancient Indo-Aryan), Older and Younger Avestan and Old Persian (ancient Iranian languages). A few words from a fourth language (very closely related to Indo-Aryan; see Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni) are attested in documents from the ancient Mitanni kingdom in northern Mesopotamia and Syria and the Hittite kingdom in Anatolia.
Kazakhstan is the world's largest landlocked country by land area and the ninth largest country in the world; its territory of 2,727,300 square kilometres (1,053,000 sq mi) is larger than Western Europe.[3][7] It has borders with (clockwise from the north) Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, and also adjoins a large part of the Caspian Sea. The terrain of Kazakhstan includes flatlands, steppe, taiga, rock canyons, hills, deltas, snow-cappedmountains, and deserts. With an estimated 17 million people as of 2013[8]Kazakhstan is the 62nd most populous country in the world, though its population density is among the lowest, at less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 people per sq. mi.). The capital is Astana, where it was moved from Almaty in 1997.
The territory of Kazakhstan has historically been inhabited by nomadic tribes. This changed in the 13th century, when Genghis Khan occupied the country. Following internal struggles among the conquerors, power eventually reverted to the nomads. By the 16th century, the Kazakhs emerged as a distinct group, divided into three jüz(ancestor branches occupying specific territories). The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganized several times before becoming the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, an integral part of theSoviet Union.
Kazakhstan was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991; the current President, Nursultan Nazarbayev, has been leader of the country since then. Kazakhstan pursues a balanced foreign policy and works to develop its economy, especially its dominanthydrocarbon industry.[9]
Kazakhstan is populated by 131 ethnicities, including Kazakh (who make up 63 percent of the population), Russian, Uzbek, Ukrainian, German, Tatar, and Uyghur.[10]Islam is the religion of about 70 percent of the population, with Christianity practiced by 26 percent;[11] Kazakhstan allows freedom of religion. The Kazakh language is thestate language, while Russian has equal official status for all levels of administrative and institutional purposes.[3][12]
Kazakhқазақ тілі, qazaq tili, قازاق تىلىPronunciation[qɑˈzɑq tɘˈlɘ]Native toKazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Russia, Iran
Native speakers
11 million (2007)[1]
Language family
TurkicKipchakKipchak–NogayKazakh
Writing system
Kazakh alphabets (Cyrillic, Latin, Perso-Arabic, Kazakh Braille)
The Xiongnu Empire (209 BC-93 CE) governed the territory of modern Altai Republic. The ethnicity of this empire is unclear, proposals by scholars include Turkic, Yeniseian,[12][13] Tocharian, Iranian,[14][15] and Uralic.[16] Southern part of the Altai Republic came under the Naiman Khanate. Territory of the modern Altai Republic has been ruled by the Mongolic Xianbei state (93-234), Rouran Khaganate(330-555), Mongol Empire (1206-1368), Golden Horde (1240-1502) and Zunghar Khanate (1634-1758).
The national autonomy for the Altai people was created on June 1, 1922 as Oyrot Autonomous Oblast (Ойро́тская автоно́мная о́бласть), part of Altai Krai. The original name for this region was Bazla. On January 7, 1948 it was renamed Gorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast (Го́рно-Алта́йская автоно́мная о́бласть). In 1991 it was reorganized into the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR). In 1992 it was renamed as the Altai Republic.
The Altai Republic is situated in the very center of Asia at the junction of Siberian, steppes of Kazakhstan and semi-deserts of Mongolia. Forests cover about 25% of the republic's territory.
More than 20,000 tributaries sprawl throughout the mountainous Republic, making for a total of more than 60,000 kilometers (37,000 mi) worth of waterways. The republic's largest rivers are the Katun and the Biya, both of which originate in the mountains and flow northwards. The junction of the two rivers eventually forms theOb River, one of the longest rivers in Siberia, which flows northward to the Arctic Ocean.
The source of the black Biya River is Lake Teletskoye, the region's largest lake located in an isolated area far south in the mountains. The emerald-colored Katun River has its source at the Gebler glacier, which is situated on the Republic's highest point, Mount Belukha. The Katun River in particular holds a religious significance for native Altaians, as well as for many Russians who live in the area, as Mount Belukha is known in Altai folklore to be the gateway to the mystical kingdom of Shambhala.
In Tibetan Buddhist and Indian Hindu/Buddhist traditions, Shambhala (also spelledShambala or Shamballa; Sanskrit: शंभाल; Tibetan: བདེ་འབྱུང་; Wylie: bde 'byung, pron. de-jung; Chinese: 香巴拉; pinyin: xiāngbālā) is a kingdom hidden somewhere in Inner Asia. It is mentioned in various ancient texts, including the Kalachakra Tantra[2] and the ancient texts of the Zhang Zhung culture which predated Tibetan Buddhism in western Tibet. The Bön[3] scriptures speak of a closely related land calledOlmolungring.
Hindu texts such as Vishnu Purana (4.24) mention the village Shambhala as the birthplace of Kalki, the final incarnation of Vishnu who will usher in a new Golden Age (Satya Yuga).[4]
The first information that reached western civilization about Shambhala came from the Portuguese Catholic missionary Estêvão Cacella, who had heard about Shambhala (which they transcribed as "Xembala"), and thought it was another name for Cathay or China. In 1627 they headed to Tashilhunpo, the seat of the Panchen Lama and, discovering their mistake, returned to India.[11]
The Hungarian scholar Sándor Kőrösi Csoma, writing in 1833, provided the first geographic account of "a fabulous country in the north...situated between 45' and 50' north latitude". Interestingly enough, due north from India to between these latitudes is eastern Kazakhstan, which is characterized by green hills, low mountains, rivers, and lakes. This is in contrast to the landscape of the provinces of Tibet and Xinjiang in eastern China, which are high mountains and arid.
The concept of Shangri-La, as first described in James Hilton's 1933 novel Lost Horizon, is claimed to have been inspired by the Shambhala myth (as well as then-current National Geographic articles on Eastern Tibet Kham).
Shambala appears in several science fiction stories of the 1930s. The legendary locale also serves as a lure to visionaries and adventurers in Thomas Pynchon's "Against the Day" (2006).
During the late-19th century, Theosophical Society co-founder HP Blavatsky alluded to the Shambhala myth, giving it currency for Western occult enthusiasts. Madame Blavatsky, who claimed to be in contact with a Great White Lodge of Himalayan Adepts, mentions Shambhala in several places, but without giving it especially great emphasis. (The Mahatmas, we are told, are also active around Shigatse and Luxor.)
Later esoteric writers further emphasized and elaborated on the concept of a hidden land inhabited by a hidden mystic brotherhood whose members labor for the good of humanity. Alice A. Bailey claims Shamballa (her spelling) is an extra-dimensional or spiritual reality on the etheric plane, a spiritual centre where the governing deity ofEarth, Sanat Kumara, dwells as the highest Avatar of the Planetary Logos of Earth, and is said to be an expression of the Will of God.[12] Nicholas and Helena Roerich led a 1924-1928 expedition aimed at Shambhala.[13]
Inspired by Theosophical lore and several visiting Mongol lamas, Gleb Bokii, the chief Bolshevik cryptographer and one of the bosses of the Soviet secret police, along with his writer friend Alexander Barchenko, embarked on a quest for Shambhala, in an attempt to merge Kalachakra-tantra and ideas of Communism in the 1920s. Among other things, in a secret laboratory affiliated with the secret police, Bokii and Barchenko experimented with Buddhist spiritual techniques to try and find a key for engineering perfect communist human beings.[14] They contemplated a special expedition to Inner Asia to retrieve the wisdom of Shambhala - the project fell through as a result of intrigues within the Soviet intelligence service, as well as rival efforts of the Soviet Foreign Commissariat that sent its own expedition to Tibet in 1924.
French Buddhist Alexandra David-Néel associated Shambhala with Balkh in present day Afghanistan, also offering the Persian Sham-i-Bala, "elevated candle" as an etymology of its name.[15] In a similar vein, the Gurdjieffian J. G. Bennett published speculation that Shambalha was Shams-i-Balkh, a Bactrian sun temple.[16]
Similarly, Heinrich Himmler and Rudolf Hess sent a German expedition to Tibet in 1930, and then again in 1934-35, and in 1938-39.[17] Some later occultists, noting the Nazi link, view Shambhala (or the closely related underground realm of Aghartha) as a source of negative manipulation by an evil (or amoral) conspiracy.
Chögyam Trungpa, a Tibetan Buddhist lama, used the "Shambhala" name for certain of his teachings, practices, and organizations (e.g. Shambhala Training, Shambhala International, Shambhala Publications), referring to the root of human goodness and aspiration. In Trungpa's view, Shambhala has its own independent basis in human wisdom that does not belong to East or West, or to any one culture or religion.[18
The Nanais are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China where they are known as "Hezhe" (赫哲族 Hèzhé-zú). According to the last census of 2004, they numbered 4,640 in China (mostly in Heilongjiangprovince). Chinese Nanais speak the Hezhen dialect of Nanai. They also have a rich oral literature known as the Yimakan.[13] The dialect does not have a written system in China and Nanais usually write in Chinese. (Second language literacy is 84%.) However as of 2005 teachers have recently finished compiling probably the first Hezhe language textbook.[14]
Some of the earliest first-hand accounts of the Nanai people in the European languages belong to the French Jesuit geographers travelling on the Ussury and theAmur in 1709. According to them, the native people living on the Ussury and on the Amur above the mouth of the Dondon River (which falls into the Amur between today's Khabarovsk and Komsomolsk-on-Amur) were known as Yupi Tartars (fish-skin tartars), while the name of the people living on the Dondon and on the Amur below Dondon was transcribed by the Jesuits into French as Ketching.[7] The latter name may be the French transcription of the reported self-name of the Nanais of the lower Amur, [xədʑən], which was also applied to the closely related Ulch people,[8]
According to the Jesuits, the language of the "Yupi" people seemed to occupy an intermediate position between the Manchu language and that of the "Ketching" people; some level of communication between the Yupi and the Ketching was possible.[9]
Economy
As described by early visitors (e.g., Jesuit cartographers on the Ussury River in 1709), the economy of the people living there (who would be classified as Nanai, or possible Udege people, today) was based on fishing. The people would live in villages along the banks of the Ussuri, and would spend their entire summers fishing, eating fresh fish in the summer (particularly appreciating the sturgeon), and drying more fish for eating in winter. Fish would be used as fodder for those few domestic animals they had (which made the flesh of a locally raised pig almost inedible by visitors with European tastes).[10]
A 1682 published Italian map showing the "Kingdom of the Niuche" (i.e., Nǚzhēn) or the "Kin (Jin) Tartars", as well as the lands of the "Yupy Tartars" - i.e. the "Fishskin Tartars" (Nanais and related tribes) further east.
The traditional clothing was made out of fish skins. These skins were left to dry. Once dry, they were struck repeatedly with a mallet to leave them completely smooth. Finally they were sewn together.[10] The fish chosen to be used were those weighing more than 50 kilograms.[11] In the past centuries, this distinct practice earned the Nanai the name "Fish-skin Tartars" (Chinese: 鱼皮鞑子, Yupi Dazi). This name has also been applied, more generically, to other aboriginal groups of he lower Sungari and lower Amur basins.[12]
Agriculture entered the Nanai lands only slowly. Practically the only crop grown by the Yupi villagers on the Ussuri River shores in 1709 was some tobacco.[10]
Religion
"Idol poles" (totem poles) of the Nanais ("Goldi"). Drawing byRichard Maack, between 1854-1860
The Nanais are mainly Shamanist, with a great reverence for the bear (Doonta) and the tiger (Amba). They consider that the shamans have the power to expel bad spirits by means of prayers to the gods. During the centuries they have been worshipers of the spirits of the sun, the moon, the mountains, the water and the trees. According to their beliefs, the land was once flat until great serpents gouged out the river valleys. They consider that all the things of the universe possess their own spirit and that these spirits wander independently throughout the world. In the Nanai religion, inanimate objects were often personified. Fire, for example, was personified as an elderly woman whom the Nanai referred to as Fadzya Mama. Young children were not allowed to run up to the fire, since they might startle Fadzya Mama, and men always were courteous in the presence of a fire.
Nanai shamans, like other Tungusic peoples of the region, had characteristic clothing, consisting of a skirt and jacket; a leather belt with conical metal pendants; mittens with figures of serpents, lizards or frogs; and hats with branching horns or bear, wolf, or fox fur attached to it. Bits of Chinese mirrors were also sometimes incorporated into the costume.
The deceased were normally buried in the ground with the exception of children who died prior to the first birthday; in this case the child's body was wrapped in a cloth or birchbark covering and buried in the tree branches as a "wind burial".
Tungusic peoples are the peoples who speak Tungusic languages. They inhabitEastern Siberia and are often contrasted with Mongols. The first European description of the Tungusic people was by the Dutch traveller Isaac Massa in 1612.[1]
EtymologyEdit
The word Tungus derives from "Donki", which means "men" in Tungusic languages.[2]It has also been suggested that the word derives from "tungus", which means pig.[2]
Some scholars[3] suggest derivation from the Chinese word Donghu (東胡, "Eastern Barbarians", c.f. Tonggu 通古 = Tungusic). This "chance similarity in modern pronunciation", writes Pulleyblank, "led to the once widely held assumption that the Eastern Hu were Tungusic in language. However, there is little basis for this theory."[4]
LocationEdit
Tunguska rivers, forming the western boundary.
The word originated in Tunguska, a region of eastern Siberia bounded on the west by the Tunguska river[2] and on the east by the Pacific ocean.
The largest of the Tungusic peoples are the Manchu who number around 10 million. They are originally from Manchuria, which is now Northeast China but following their conquest of China in the 17th century, they have been almost totally assimilated into the main Han Chinese population of China. This process accelerated especially during the 20th century. The non-assimilated culture and language is still present in parts of northern China.
Evenks live in the Evenk Autonomous Okrug of Russia. The Udege (Удэгейцы inRussian; ethnonym: удээ and удэхе, or udee and udehe correspondingly) are a people who live in the Primorsky Krai and Khabarovsk Krai regions, also in Russia.
2–3% of them are of Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup Y origin.
Tungus man in 1914 in Vorogovo, Siberia.
http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-korean.htm
The largest concentration of Koreans is in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in eastern Jilin Province. Under its jurisdiction are the cities of Yanji and Tumen, and the counties of Yanji, Helong, Antu, Huichun, Wangqing and Dunhua, covering a total area of 41,500 sq. km.
The Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture is a beautiful, majestic land of high mountains and deep valleys. The land rises to 2,744 meters above sea level to the highest peak of the Changbai Mountains -- White Head Summit. This is an extinct volcano, from the crater lake of which spring the Yalu and Tumen rivers, flowing south and north respectively, and forming the boundary with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the east.
The area is accessible nowadays by both road and rail, except for the mountain-locked Hunchun District. The prefecture has 1,600 km of railways and 3,700 km of highways and branch roads.
Another community of Koreans lives in the Changbai Korean Autonomous County in southeastern Jilin.
The area is one of China's major sources of timber and forest products, including ginseng, marten pelts and deer antlers. It is also a habitat for many wild animals, including tigers.
Copper, lead, zinc and gold have been mined here since the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), and the area also has deposits of iron, antimony, phosphorus, graphite, quartz, limestone and oil shale.
Yanbian is also blessed with agricultural riches and is a major tobacco producer. It is famous for apples and pears, which have been exported since 1955.
The ancestors of the Korean ethnic group migrated from the Korean peninsula from about the late 17th century, mostly peasants fleeing from their oppressive feudal landlords. Especially following a severe famine in the northern part of Korea in 1869, they settled down in large numbers in what is now the Yanbian area. Another wave of migration took place in the early years of this century when Japan annexed Korea and drove many peasants off the land. The Japanese seizure of the Manchurian provinces further served to drive landless Koreans to settle in Northeast China.
The Koreans have their own spoken and written language, which is thought to belong to the Altaic family. Their alphabet is a simple, ingenious one, and the Koreans are very proud of it.
Customs
The traditional Korean dress is white, a symbol of simplicity and serenity. Men wear baggy trousers fastened at the ankles and a jacket which fastens on the right; sometimes they wear a high-crowned black horsehair hat. Women wear voluminous skirts and a tight jacket which reaches just below the armpits.
Their cuisine is very spicy and includes kimchi (pickled vegetables), cold noodles, sticky rice cakes and dog meat.
Yanbian is fairly evenly populated, with villages set a few miles apart from each other and ranging in size from about a dozen households to several scores. The houses are built of wood with low-eaved tile or thatched roofs. They are heated by flues running under a raised platform in the main rooms, which serves as a bed and also a place to sit on. Shoes are removed before entering the house.
The Koreans are very fond of music. They sometimes sing and dance to the accompaniment of drums and flutes in the fields or on construction sites. Traditional festivals are celebrated heartily, especially the Lunar New Year, and the Mid-Autumn Festival. Other occasions for merriment are the 100th day after a baby's birth and a person's 60th birthday.
In the old days, men labored in the fields while women worked around the house. The eldest son became the head of the family upon the death or incapacitation of the father. Monogamy was practiced but early marriage and adoption of child brides and boys to carry on the family tree were common.
Cultural Progress
Culturally, the Koreans suffered worst of all the peoples enslaved by the Japanese; they were forced to speak the Japanese language and adopt Japanese surnames. But Japan's attempt to destroy Korean culture came to naught in 1945, and there was a resurgence of cultural awareness among the Koreans.
Newspapers in the Korean language sprang up, including the Jilin Daily (later renamed the Yanbian Daily), Heilongjiang Daily and the Liaoning Daily. In 1947, the Yanbian Korean Publishing House was founded in Yanji, and the Yanbian People's Radio went on the air. Special Korean programs are also aired by the Central People's Broadcasting Station and the Heilongjiang People's Broadcasting Station.
Particular attention was paid to education. In 1949, the Yanbian University was founded in Yanji. Other institutions of higher learning established during the early post-liberation period include the Yanbian Medical Institute, the Yanbian Amateur Agricultural University and a teachers college. Universal secondary education was realized as far back as 1958.
As a result, there are now large numbers of people of Korean origin at all levels of leadership in many areas of China, and at renowned educational institutions in China's major cities. The Yanbian area is noted also for its culture and art troupes and cultural organizations. At the prefectural level, these include the United Association of Yanbian Culture and Art Workers and the Yanbian Branch of the Chinese Writers Association. The Yanbian song and dance, modern drama and theatrical companies are famous all over the country, and many Korean artists study at advanced institutes in other parts of China.
The Korean ethnic minority has set up an efficient network of health care centers and hospitals, including the Yanbian Hospital, a tuberculosis treatment center, an anti-epidemic hospital and a psychiatric sanatorium. The Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture boasts high standards of maternity, childcare and family planning, as well as an enviable record in the fight against endemic diseases.
One of 56 ethnic groups in China with a population of some 121,500, the Daur today mainly live in Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang and Xinjiang where they traditionally have engaged in agriculture and hunting, but now also maintain their own industries.
Liu Fengzhu, a researcher with the Nationalities Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences which first began using DNA technology in its research in 1995, in a recent telephone interview talked about the discovery.
The research team first identified Qidan tombs from inscriptions on memorial tablets. From the Yelu Yu family tombs, they extracted DNA from the skull and teeth as well as carpal bone from Qidan woman corpse. At the same time, blood samples of Daur,Ewenki, Mongol and Han people in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region were collected. From the blood samples, the researchers extracted DNA.
After sequence testing, they concluded that people of Daur ethnic group are all descendants of Qidan nationality.
Researchers also found possible links to the Qidan in other regions. They collected blood samples of the people with surnames of A, Mang and Jiang and other ethnic groups in Yunnan Province, who previously had claimed themselves descendants of Qidan rather than the ethnic groups such as Blang and Yi with which they were categorized on the founding of the People’s Republic of China more than 50 years ago.
"We found that the people in Yunnan Province with surnames of A, Mang and Jiang have similar patrilineal origins with Daur, so we identified them as descendants of Qidan, too," Liu said.
The more than 100,000 people with surnames of A, Mang and Jiang who live mainly in Baoshan and Ruili districts of southwest Yunnan were particularly pleased that the DNA test substantiated their earlier claims.
Qidan was a nomadic tribe in ancient north China, living on fishing and hunting. They came into power in the last years of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) as people from central uplands who brought with them advanced agricultural and manufacturing technologies. In the year 916, Yeluabaoji, the chief of the Qidan nationality, became the first emperor of the Qidan State. The Qidan created their own written characters and had an official name of "Liao Dynasty (916-1125)," when many ethnic groups banded together.
Records about the Qidan nationality suddenly stopped in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), together with its culture, and what happened to them has remained a matter of speculation.
Liu Fengzhu believes the Qidan people were scattered through war, which explains the presence of their descendants in different areas of China. Liu said the Qidan, like many other groups, would have faced recruitment as soldiers by the Mongols in the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) as they established the Great Mongol Empire which stretched over Europe and Asia.
“Some continued to live in a big group, such as Daur, so they are preserved. Some were assimilated by the people where they came live, just like ice in the sea. But those in Yunnan Province managed to keep the memory of the original ethnic group.”
Actually, the fate of the Qidan is not so unusual, Liu said. Similar cases can be found among other minority groups. For example, some Uygur people (a major ethnic group of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region) now live in Taoyuan County of Hunan Province.
Many Daurs are shamanists. Each clan has its own shaman in charge of all the important ceremonies in the lives of the Daur.
There is a very noticeable hierarchic structure. People sharing the same surname are in groups called hala, they live together with the same group, formed by two or three towns. Each hala is divided in diverse clans (mokon) that live in the same town. If a marriage between different clans is made, the husband continues to live with the clan of his wife without holding property rights.
During the winter, the Daur women wear long dresses, generally blue in color and boots of skin which they change for long trousers in summer. The men dress in orejeros caps in fox or red deer skin made for winter. In the summer, they cover the animal's head with white colored fabrics or straw hats.
A customary sport of the Daur is Beikou, a game similar to field hockey or street hockey, which has been played by the Daur for about 1,000 years.[3]
Genetically, the Daurs are descendants of the Khitan, as recent DNA analyses have proven.[1] In the Qianlong Emperor's "钦定《辽金元三史语解》" (Imperially commissioned Translations of the History of Liao, History of Jin and History of Yuan) he retranslates "大贺", a Khitan clan described in the History of Liao, as "达呼尔". That's the earliest theory claim Daurs are descendants of Khitans.
In the 17th century, some or all of the Daurs lived along the Shilka, upper Amur, on the Zeya and Bureya River. They thus gave their name to the region of Dauria, also called Transbaikal, now the area of Russia east of Lake Baikal.
By the mid-17th century, the Amur Daurs fell under the influence of the Manchus of the Qing Dynasty which crushed the resistance of Bombogor, leader of the Evenk-Daur Federation in 1640. When the Russian explorers and raiders arrived to the region in the early 1650 (notably, during Yerofei Khabarov's 1651 raid), they would often see the Daur farmers burn their smaller villages and taking refuge in larger towns. When told by the Russians to submit to the rule of the Tsar and to pay yasak(tribute), the Daurs would often refuse, saying that they already pay tribute to theShunzhi Emperor (whose name the Russians recorded from the Daurs asShamshakan).[2] The Cossacks would then attack, usually being able to take Daur towns with only small losses. For example, Khabarov reported that in 1651 he had only 4 of his Cossacks killed while storming the town of the Daur prince Guigudar (Гуйгударов городок) (other 45 Cossacks were wounded, but all were able to recover). Meanwhile the Cossacks reported killing 661 "Daurs big and small" at that town (of which, 427 during the storm itself), and taking 243 women and 118 children prisoners, as well as capturing 237 horse and 113 cattle.[2] The captured Daur town of Yaxa became the Russian town Albazin, which was not recaptured by the Qing until the 1680s.
Facing the Russian expansion in the Amur region, between 1654 and 1656, during the reign of Shunzhi Emperor, the Daurs were forced to move southward and settle on the banks of the Nen River, from where they were constantly conscripted to serve in the banner system of the Qing emperors.
When the Japanese invaded Manchuria in 1931, the Daurs carried out an intense resistance against them.
Daur is a Mongolic language. There is no written standard, although a Pinyin-based orthography has been devised by the native Daur scholar Merden Enhebatu. TheDaur language retains some Khitan substratal features, including a number of lexemes not found in other Mongolic languages. It is made up of three dialects: Bataxan, Hailar, Qiqihar.
Regions with significant populationsPeople's Republic of China, in Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang and XinjiangLanguagesDaur, ChineseReligionTibetan Buddhism, ShamanismRelated ethnic groupsMongols, Khitan
The Daur people (Khalkha Mongolian: Дагуур/Daguur; simplified Chinese: 达尔;traditional Chinese: 達爾; pinyin: Dáwò'ěr zú; the former name "Dahur" is considered derogatory[citation needed]) are a Mongolic-speaking ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized in the People's Republic of China. They numbered 132,394 according to the latest census (2000), and most of them live in the Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner (Mòlì Dáwǎ Dáwò'ěrzú Zìzhìqí莫力達瓦達斡爾族自治旗/莫力达瓦达斡尔族自治旗) in Hulun Buir, Inner Mongoliaautonomous region of China. There are also some near Tacheng in Xinjiang, where their ancestors were moved during the Qing Dynasty. Daguur in Mongolian language means "follower/copier" as in dagakh "to follow/copy" (also cf. Manchu daha- "to follow; to submit, to surrender; to obey; to accord, to be because, to be since").
DaurNative toChina, MongoliaRegionInner Mongolia, Hailar District; Heilongjiang Province, Qiqihar Prefecture; Xinjiang, Tacheng Prefecture
Native speakers
96,000 in China (1999)[1]
Language family
MongolicDaur
The Oroqen language is a Northern Tungusic language. Their language is very similar to the Evenki language and it is believed that speakers of these two languages can understand 70% of the other language. Their language is still unwritten; however, the majority of the Oroqen are capable of reading and writingChinese, and some can also speak the Daur language.
Regions with significant populationsChina: Heilongjiang, Inner MongoliaLanguagesOroqenReligionShamanism, BuddhismRelated ethnic groupsEvenks, other Tungusic peoples
The Oroqen people (simplified Chinese: 鄂伦春族; traditional Chinese: 鄂倫春族;pinyin: Èlúnchūn zú; Mongolian: Orčun; also spelt Orochen or Orochon) are an ethnic group in northern China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. As of the 2000 Census, 44.54% of the Oroqen lived in Inner Mongolia and 51.52% along the Heilongjiang River (Amur) in the province ofHeilongjiang. The Oroqin Autonomous Banner is also located in Inner Mongolia.
The Oroqens are mainly hunters, and customarily use animal fur and skins for clothing. Many of them have given up hunting and adhered to laws that aimed to protect wildlife in the People's Republic of China. The government is said to have provided modern dwellings for those who have left behind the traditional way of life. The Oroqen are represented in the People's Congress by their own delegate and are a recognized ethnic minority.
Total populationapprox. 67,000[citation needed]Regions with significant populations Russia - 35,527 (2002)
China - 30,875 (2010)
Ukraine - 48 (2001) [1]LanguagesEvenki, Russian, ChineseReligionShamanism, Orthodox Christianity, Tibetan Buddhism[2][3][4]Related ethnic groupsEvens, Oroqens, Oroch
The Evenks (also spelled Ewenki or Evenki) (autonym: Эвэнкил Evenkil; Russian:Эвенки Evenki; Chinese: 鄂温克族 Èwēnkè Zú; formerly known as Tungus or Tunguz;Mongolian: Хамниган Khamnigan) are a Tungusic people of Northern Asia. In Russia, the Evenks are recognized as one of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian North, with a population of 35,527 (2002 Census). In China, the Evenki form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, with a population of 30,875, as per the 2010 Census. There are also 535 Mongolized Evenki in Mongolia, referred to as Khamnigan.
The Evenks or Ewenki are sometimes conjectured to be connected to the Shiweipeople who inhabited the Greater Khingan Range in the 5th to 9th centuries, although the native land of the majority of Evenki people is in the vast regions of Siberia between Lake Baikal and the Amur River. The Ewenki language forms the northern branch of the Manchu-Tungusic language group and is closely related to Even andNegidal in Siberia. By 1600 the Evenks or Ewenki of the Lena and Yenisey valleys were successful reindeer herders. By contrast the Solons and the Khamnigans (Ewenkis of Transbaikalia) had picked up horse breeding and the Mongolian deelfrom the Mongols. The Solons (ancestors of the Evenkis in China) nomadized along the Amur River. They were closely related to the Daur people. To the west the Khamnigan were another group of horse-breeding Evenks in the Transbaikalia area. Also in the Amur valley a body of Siberian Evenki-speaking people were calledOrochen by the Manchus.
Historical distribution
The Evenks have most likely been in the Baikal region of Southern Siberia (near the modern-day Mongolian border) since the Neolithic era; "The origin of the Evenks is the result of complex processes, different in time, involving the mixing of different ancient aboriginal tribes from the north of Siberia with tribes related in language to the Turks and Mongols. The language of these tribes took precedence over the languages of the aboriginal population" (Vasilevich, 623). Elements of more modern Evenk culture, including conical tent dwellings, bone fish-lures, and birch-bark boats, were all present in sites that are believed to be Neolithic. From Lake Baikal, “they spread to the Amur and Okhotsk Sea…the Lena Basin…and the Yenisey Basin” (623).
Contact with Russians
In the 17th century, the Russian empire began to expand enough to contact the remote Evenkis. Cossacks, men who served as a kind of “border-guard” for the tsarist government, imposed a fur tax on the Siberian tribes. The Cossacks exploited the Evenki clan hierarchy and took hostages from the highest members in order to ensure payment of the tax. Although there was some rebellion against local officials, the Evenks generally recognized the “great need of peaceful cultural relations with the Russians (624). Contact with the Russians and constant demand for fur taxes pushed the Evenkis east all the way to Sakhalin island, where some still live today (Cassell’s). In the 19th, some groups migrated south and east into Mongolia and Manchuria (Vasilevich, 625). Today there are still Evenki populations in Sakhalin, Mongolia, and Manchuria (Ethnologue), and to a lesser extent, their traditional Baikal region (Janhunen).
Traditionally they were a mixture of pastoralists and hunter-gatherers—they relied on their domesticated reindeer for milk and transport and hunted other large game for meat (Vasilevich, 620-1). Today “[t]he Evenks are divided into two large groups…engaging in different types of economy. These are the hunting and reindeer-breeding Evenks…and the horse and cattle pastoral Evenks as well as some farming Evenks” (620). The Evenks lived mostly in areas of what is called a taiga, or boreal forest. They lived in conical tents made from birch bark or reindeer skin tied to birch poles. When they moved camp, the Evenks would leave the dwelling’s framework and carry only the more portable coverings. During winter, the hunting season, most camps consisted of one or two tents while the spring encampments encompassed up to 10 households (Vasilevich, 637).
The skill of riding the domesticated reindeer allowed the Evenkis to “colonize vast areas of the eastern taiga which had previously been impenetrable” (Vitebsky, 31). The Evenks use a saddle unique to their culture which is placed on the shoulders of the reindeer which lessens the strain on the animal. Also, the Evenks traditionally did not use stirrups but used a stick to balance (31-32). Evenks did not develop reindeer sledges until comparatively recent times (32). They instead used their reindeer as pack animals and often traversed great distances on foot, using snowshoes or skis (Vasilevich, 627). The Evenki people did not eat their domesticated reindeer (although they did hunt and eat wild reindeer) but kept them for milk. (Forsyth, 49-50).
Large herds of reindeer were very uncommon. Most Evenks had around 25 head of reindeer because they were generally bred for transportation purposes. Unlike several other neighboring tribes Evenk reindeer-breeding did not include “herding of reindeer by dogs nor any other specific features” (Vasilevich, 629). Very early in the spring season, the winter camps broke up and moved to places suitable for calving. Several households pastured their animals together throughout the summer, being careful to keep “[s]pecial areas…fenced off…to guard the newborn calves against being trampled on in a large herd” (629).
Clothing
The Evenks wore a characteristic costume “adapted to the cold but rather dry climate of Central Siberia and to a life of mobility…they wore brief garments of soft reindeer or elk skin around their hips, along with leggings and moccasins, or else long supple boots reaching to the thigh” (49). They also wore a deerskin coat that did not close in front but was instead covered with an apron-like cloth. Some Evenkis decorated their clothing with fringes or embroidery (50). The Evenki traditional costume always consisted of these elements: the loincloth made of animal hide, leggings, and boots of varying lengths (Vasilevich, 641). Facial tattooing was also very common.
Hunting
The traditional Evenki economy was a mix of pastoralism (of horses or reindeer), fishing, and hunting. The Evenki who lived near the Okhotsk Sea hunted seal, but for most of the taiga-dwellers, elk, wild reindeer, and fowl were the most important game animals. Other animals included “roe deer, bear, wolverine, lynx, wolf, Siberian marmot, fox, and sable” (Vasilevich, 626). Trapping did not become important until the imposition of the fur tax by the tsarist government. Before acquiring guns in the 18th century, Evenks used steel bows and arrows. Along with their main hunting implements, hunters always carried a “pike”—“which was a large knife on a long handle used instead of an axe when passing through the thick taiga or as a spear when hunting bear” (626). The Evenks have deep respects for animals and all elements of nature: "It is forbidden to torment an animal, bird, or insect, and a wounded animal must be finished off immediately…It is forbidden to spill the blood of a killed animal or defile it…It is forbidden to kill animals or birds that were saved from pursuit by predators or came to a person for help in a natural disaster" (Sirina, 24).
The Evenks were formerly known as tungus. This designation was spread by theRussians, who acquired it from the Yakuts and the Siberian Tatars (in the Yakut language tongus) in the 17th century. The Evenks have several self-designations, of which the best known is evenk. This became the official designation for the people in 1931. Some groups call themselves orochen ('an inhabitant of the River Oro'),orochon ('a rearer of reindeer'), ile ('a human being'), etc. At one time or another tribal designations and place names have also been used as self-designations, for instance manjagir, birachen, solon, etc. Several of these have even been taken for separate ethnic entities.
There is also a similarly named Siberian group called the Evens (formerly known asLamuts). Although related to the Evenks, the Evens are now considered to be a separate ethnic group.
The Evenks are spread over a huge territory of the Siberian taiga from the River Ob in the west to the Okhotsk Sea in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean in the north toManchuria and Sakhalin in the south. The total area of their habitat is about 2,500,000 km². In all of Russia only the Russians inhabit a larger territory. According to the administrative structure, the Evenks live, from west to east, in Tyumen andTomsk Oblasts, Krasnoyarsk Krai with Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Irkutsk, Chita, andAmur Oblasts, the Buryat and the Sakha Republics, Khabarovsk Krai, and Sakhalin Oblast. However, the territory where they are a titular nation is confined solely to Evenk Autonomous Okrug, where 3,802 of the 35,527 Evenks live (according to the 2002 Census). More than 18,200 Evenks live in the Sakha Republic.
Anthropologically the Evenk belong to the Baikal or Paleo-Siberian group of the Mongolian type, originating from the ancient Paleo-Siberian people of the Yenisei River up to the Okhotsk Sea.[citation needed]
The Evenki language is the largest of the northern group of the Manchu-Tungus languages, a group which also includes the Even and Negidal languages.
Russian Federation
According to the 2002 census 35 527 Evenki lived in Russia.
The lands of the Solons (Solonen) near Hailar (Chailar) in the late Qing Empire
According to the 2000 Census, there are 30,505 Evenks in China mainly made up of the Solons and the Khamnigans. 88.8% of China's Evenks live in the Hulunbuir region in the north of the Inner Mongolia Province, near the city of Hailar. The Evenk Autonomous Banner is also located near Hulunbuir. There are also around 3,000 Evenks in neighbouring Heilongjiang Province.
The Manchu Emperor Hong Taiji conquered the Evenks in 1640, and executed their leader Bombogor. After the Manchu conquest, the Evenks were incorporated into theEight Banners.
In 1763, the Qing government moved 500 Solon Evenk and 500 Daur families to theTacheng and Ghulja areas of Xinjiang, in order to strengthen the empire's western border. 1020 Xibe families (some 4000 persons) followed the next year. Since then, however, the Solons of Xinjiang have assimilated into other ethnic groups, and are not identified as such anymore.[5][6]
By countyCounty-level distribution of the Evenk(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >0.1% of China's Evenk population.)
According to the 2001 census, there were 48 Evenks living in Ukraine. Only 4 of them indicated Evenk as their native language. The majority (35) of Ukrainian Evenks told that their native language is Russian and 3 Evenks Ukrainian.[7]
Prior to contact with the Russians, the belief system of the Evenks was animistic.
The Evenki, like most nomadic, pastoral, and subsistence agrarian peoples, spend most of their lives in very close contact with nature. Because of this, they develop what A. A. Sirina call an “ecological ethic.” By this she means “a system of responsibility of people to nature and her spirit masters, and of nature to people” (9). Sirina interviewed many Evenks who until very recently spent much of their time as reindeer herders in the taiga, just like their ancestors. The Evenki people also spoke along the same lines: their respect for nature and their belief that nature is a living being.
This idea, “[t]he embodiment, animation, and personification of nature—what is still called the animistic worldview—is the key component of the traditional worldview of hunter-gatherers” (Sirina, 13). Although most of the Evenkis have been “sedentarized”—that is, made to live in settled communities instead of following their traditional nomadic way of life (Fondahl, 5)—“[m]any scholars think that the worldview characteristic of hunter-gatherer societies is preserved, even if they make the transition to new economic models (Sirina, 30 quoting Barnard 1998, Lee 1999, Peterson 1999). Although nominally Christianized in the 18th century, the Evenki people maintain many of their historical beliefs—especially shamanism (Vasilevich, 624). The Christian traditions were “confined to the formal performance of Orthodox rites which were usually timed for the arrival of the priest in the taiga (647).
The religious beliefs and practices of the Evenks are of great historical interest since these retain some extremely early archaic forms of belief. By the beginning of this century, the religion of the Evenks included the remnants of various stages of development of religious ideas. Among the most ancient ideas are spiritualization of all natural phenomena, personification of them, belief in an upper, middle, and lower world, belief in the soul (omi) and certain totemistic concepts. There were also various magical rituals associated with hunting and guarding herds. Later on these rituals were conducted by shamans. Shamanism brought about the development of views of spirit-masters (Vasilevich 647).
There are few sources on the shamanism of the Ewenki peoples below the Amur/Helongkiang river in Northern China. There is a brief report of fieldwork conducted byRichard Noll and Kun Shi in 1994 of the life of the shamaness Dula'r (Ewenki name), also known as Ao Yun Hua (her Han Chinese name).[8] She was born in 1920 and was living in the village of Yiming Gatsa in the Ewenki Banner (county) of the Hulunbuir Prefecture, in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. While not a particularly good informant, she described her initiatory illness, her multiyear apprenticeship with a Mongol shaman before being allowed to heal at the age of 25 or 26, and the torments she experienced during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s when most of her shamanic paraphernalia was destroyed. Mongol and Buddhist Lamaist influences on her indigenous practice of shamansim was evident. She hid her prize possession -- an Abagaldi (bear spirit) shaman mask, which has also been documented among the Mondols and Dauer peoples in the region. The field report and color photographs of this shaman are available online.[9]
The Hamnigan Buryats or Khamnigan are Mongolized Evenks of Tungusic origin. Khamnigan is the Buriat term for all Ewenkis. In the early 16th century, the Evenks of Transbaikalia or Khamnigans were tributary to the Khalkha. The Khamnigan are only ethnic group of Tungus origin in Mongolia.[4] They who lived around Nerchinsk and the Aga steppe faced both Cossack demands for tribute andKhori-Buriats trying to occupy their pastures. Most of them came under the Cossack rule and enrolled the Cossack regiments in the Selenge valley. The Khori Buriats occupied most of the Aga steppe and forced the Ewenkis to flee to the Qing Dynasty.
After 1880 Russia's Khamnigan Evenks moved to semi nomadic herding of cattle, sheep, camels and horses. Some time after 1918 the Evenks, along with their Buriat neighbors, fled over the border into Mongolia and Hulun Buir, establishing the current Khamnigan communities there. The Khamnigan of Mongolia, numbering 300 households, are scattered among the Buriats and speak only the Khamnigan dialect of Buriat language. They live around the Yeruu Lake, Dornod and Khentii provinces as well as Möngönmorit of Töv Province.
There are 535? Hamnigans (3,000? Hamnigans in Selenge province) in Mongolia.All Hamnigans are not of Tungusic origin and there are some Mongols among the Hamnigans.
Heilongjiang Province
黑龙江省ProvinceName transcription(s) • Chinese黑龙江省 (Hēilóngjiāng Shěng) • Abbreviation黑 (pinyin: Hēi)
Map showing the location of Heilongjiang ProvinceCoordinates: 48°N 129°ENamed for黑 hēi—black
龙 lóng—dragon
江 jiāng—river
"Amur River"Capital
(and largest city)HarbinDivisions13 prefectures, 130 counties, 1274 townships
Ethnic compositionHan: 95%
Manchu: 3%
Korean: 1%
Mongol: 0.4%
Hui: 0.3% • Languages and dialectsNortheastern Mandarin, Jilu Mandarin, Jiaoliao Mandarin
HeilongjiangTraditional Chinese黑龍江Simplified Chinese黑龙江Postal MapHeilungkiangTranscriptionsMandarinHanyu PinyinHēilóngjiāngWade–GilesHei1-lung2-chiang1History of the Priamurye region
(also including Heilongjiang,
Amur Oblast and southern part of Khabarovsk KraiSushenMohe • ShiweiBalhaeKhitanLiao dynasty • DaursJin dynasty (1115–1234) • NivkhEastern Jin (1215–1234)Yuan dynasty • EvenksYeren Jurchens • Solon KhanateQing dynasty • Nanais • UlchsRussian Exploration • NegidalsManchus-Cossacks wars (1652–1689)NerchinskGovernment-General of Eastern SiberiaAigunLi-Lobanov TreatySiberian Regional GovernmentFar-Eastern RepublicFar-Eastern OblastSoviet invasion of Manchuria (1945)Sino-Soviet border conflictFar Eastern Federal District
Heilongjiang (simplified Chinese: 黑龙江省; traditional Chinese: 黑龍江省; pinyin: Hēilóngjiāng Shěng) is a province of the People's Republic of China located in thenortheastern part of the country. "Heilongjiang" literally means Black Dragon River, which is the Chinese name for the Amur. The one-character abbreviation is 黑 (pinyin: Hēi). The Manchu name of the region is Sahaliyan ula ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ (literally, "Black River"), from which the name of Sakhalin is derived, and the Mongolian name accordingly is Qaramörin.
Heilongjiang borders Jilin in the south and Inner Mongolia to the west; it also bordersRussia to the north and east.
The Amur River marks the border between the People's Republic of China and Russiato the north. Heilongjiang contains China's northernmost point (in Mohe Countyalong the Amur) and easternmost point (at the junction of the Amur and UssuriRivers).
In ancient times Heilongjiang was far from any literate civilization, and information was sparse. Ancient Chinese records and other sources state that Heilongjiang was inhabited by people such as the Buyeo, the Mohe, and the Khitan. Mongolic Donghu people lived in Inner Mongolia and the western part of Heilongjiang.[4] Some names are Manchu or Mongolian.[5] The eastern portion of Heilongjiang was ruled by the kingdom of Balhae between the 7th century and 10th century. The Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234) that subsequently ruled much of north China arose within the borders of modern Heilongjiang.
Heilongjiang and Jilin Provinces on a 1734 French map
Heilongjiang as an administrative entity was created in 1683, during the Kangxi era of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, from the northwestern part of the Jilin province.[6] This Heilongjiang Province only included the western part of today's Heilongjiang Province, and was under the supervision of the General of Heilongjiang (the title is also translated as the Military Governor of Heilongjiang), whose power extended, according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk, as far north as the Stanovoy Mountains. The eastern part of what's today Heilongjiang remained under the supervision of the General of Jilin, whose power reached the Sea of Japan. These areas deep inManchuria were closed off to Han Chinese migration.
The original seat of the Military Governor of Heilongjiang, as established in 1683, was in Heilongjang City (also known as Aigun or Heihe, or, in Manchu, Saghalien Ula), located on the Amur River. However, already in 1690 the seat of the governor was transferred to Nenjiang (Mergen) on the Nen River, and, in 1699, further south toQiqihar. According to modern historians, the moves may have been driven by supply considerations: Nenjiang and Qiqihar are connected by a convenient waterway (Nen River) with southern Manchuria, meanwhile accessing Aigun (Heihe) would require either sailing all the way down the Sungari River until its fall into Amur and then up the Amur to Heihe, or using a portage over the Lesser Xing'an Mountains between the Nen River valley and the Amur valley. An additional advantage of Qiqihar may have been its location at the junction of a northbound road (to Nenjiang) and a westbound one (to Mongolia), enabling its garrison to serve for the defense both against the Russians and the Ölöt Mongols.[7]
In 1858 and 1860 the Qing government were forced to give up all land beyond theAmur and Ussuri Rivers to the Russian Empire, cutting off Manchu Qing Empire from the Sea of Japan and giving Heilongjiang its present northern borders. At the same time, Manchuria was opened to Han Chinese migration by the Qing government. By the early twentieth century, due to the Chuang Guandong, the Han Chinese had become the dominant ethnic group in the region.[8]
In 1932, present-day Heilongjiang became part of the Japanese puppet state ofManchukuo.
In 1945 Japanese were defeated by Soviet Army. During Chinese Civil WarHeilongjiang became the first province to be completely controlled by the Chinese communists and Harbin the first major city to be controlled by them.
At the beginning of communist rule, Heilongjiang province included only the western portion of the present-day province, and had its capital at Qiqihar. The remaining area was the province of Songjiang; its capital was Harbin. In 1954, these two provinces were merged into present-day Heilongjiang. During the Cultural Revolution, Heilongjiang was also expanded to include Hulunbuir League and some other areas previously in Inner Mongolia; this has since mostly been reversed.
Heilongjiang is a land of varied topography. Much of the province is dominated by mountain ranges such as the Greater Khingan Range and Lesser Khingan Range,Zhangguangcai Mountains, Laoye Mountains, and Wanda Mountains. The highest peak is Mount Datudingzi at 1,690 metres (5,540 ft), located on the border with Jilinprovince). The Greater Khingan Range contains China's largest remaining virgin forest and is an important area for China's forestry industry.
The interior of the province, which is relatively flat and low in altitude, contains theMuling River, the Naoli River, the Songhua River, the Nen River, and the Mudan River, all tributaries of the Amur's basin, while the northern border forms part of the Amurvalley. Xingkai Lake (or Khanka Lake) is found on the border with Russia's Primorsky Krai.
A humid continental climate (Köppen Dwa or Dwb) predominates in the province, though areas in the far north are subarctic (Köppen Dwc).[9] Winters are long and bitter, with an average of −31 to −15 °C (−24 to 5 °F) in January, and summers are short and warm to very warm with an average of 18 to 23 °C (64 to 73 °F) in July. The annual average rainfall is 400 to 700 millimetres (16 to 28 in), concentrated heavily in summer. Clear weather is prevalent throughout the year, and in the spring, theSongnen Plain and the Sanpingjiang Plain provide abundant sources of wind energy.
Major cities: Harbin, Daqing, Qiqihar, Mudanjiang, Jiamusi, Jixi, Shuangyashan, Qitaihe, Yichun, Heihe
Pollution
Main article: 2013 Harbin smog
In parts of Harbin, the PM2.5 measure of air pollution reached 40 times the WHO's recommended daily exposure level. All highways in Heilongjiang province were shut and the capital Harbin closed the airport and schools.[10]
A road and highway proposal was accepted in 2006; the project plans to develop 38,000 kilometers of new roads and expand Heilongjiang’s total road network to 2.3 million kilometers.
There are 60 rail lines of around 5,300 kilometers including a section of the Asia-Europe Continental Bridge. Construction of a RMB92.3 billion passenger-only railway line running from Harbin-Dalian began in August 2007. The railway will stretch from Harbin, Heilongjiang’s capital, to Dalian in Liaoning province via Changchun and Shenyang comprising 23 stops. It is expected to transport 37 million passengers per year by 2020 and 51 million by 2030. Major airports include Harbin International Airport, Qiqihar Airport, Mudanjiang Airport, Jiamusi Airport and Heihe Airport. Harbin International Airport is capable of handling six million passengers every year and connects to over 40 domestic and international cities.
The agriculture of Heilongjiang, heavily defined by its cold climate, is based upon crops such as soybeans, maize, and wheat. Commercial crops grown include beets, and sunflowers.
Heilongjiang is also an important source of lumber for China. Pine, especially theKorean pine and larch are the most important forms of lumber produced in Heilongjiang. Forests are mostly to be found in the Daxingan Mountains andXiaoxingan Mountains, which are also home to protected animal species such as theSiberian Tiger, the red-crowned crane, and the lynx.
Herding in Heilongjiang is centered upon horse and cattle. Heilongjiang has the greatest number of milk cows and the highest production of milk among all the province-level divisions of China.
Petroleum is of great importance in Heilongjiang, and the Daqing oilfields are an important source of petroleum for China. Coal, gold, and graphite are other important minerals to be found in Heilongjiang. Heilongjiang also has great potential for wind power, with an average wind energy density of 200 watts per square metre.
Heilongjiang is part of northeast China, the traditional base of industry for thePeople's Republic of China. Industry is focused upon coal, petroleum, lumber,machinery, and food. Due to its location, Heilongjiang is also an important gateway for trade with Russia. In recent years,[when?] Manchuria has suffered from stagnation. As a result, the government has started the Revitalize Northeast China campaign to deal with this problem, using privatization as the preferred method of economic reform.
At least five miners were killed after a coal mine fire in Heilongjiang it was reported on September 21, 2008.[11]
Its GDP has been rising steadily since 2003, growing 37% from 2003-2007. Furthermore, the incremental value of the private economy grew by 20.1 percent in 2006 reaching RMB234 billion, and accounting for 37.6 percent of the GDP. The tax revenue from private enterprises hit RMB20.5 billion, a rise of 17.8 percent.
Private enterprises in Heilongjiang witnessed the fastest development in 2007, fueling the overall economic growth of the province. Many leading private enterprises have begun to emerge. Over 200 of them have an annual income exceeding RMB100 million. The province's three major private enterprises, namely the Heilongjiang Sunflower Medicine Ltd, Qitaihe Yidaxin Coal Co., and Heilongjiang Yiyang Group, each contributed more than RMB100 million in tax revenue in 2007.[citation needed]
At present, many private investors are involved in large construction projects in Heilongjiang. In 2006, 928 large projects absorbed private capital of RMB5 million each, and 101 projects attracted RMB100 million each within the province. In line with the central government’s policy to revitalize the Northeast, Heilongjiang is now restructuring its six pillar industries, namely equipment manufacturing, petrochemicals, food processing, energy, pharmaceuticals, and forest and timber processing.[citation needed]
In 2011, Heilongjiang's nominal GDP was 1,250 billion yuan (US$198.5 billion), an annual growth rate of 12.2%. Its per capita GDP was 21,640 yuan (US$3,168). Its primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 108.9 billion yuan, 436.6 billion yuan, and 285.5 billion yuan respectively.[12] The per capita disposable income of urban residents in Heilongjiang reached 11,581 yuan (US$1,667), a rise of 13% from the previous year. The per capita net income of rural residents in the province reached 4,856 yuan (US$700), a rise of 17.5 from 2007.[13]
The majority of Heilongjiang's population is Han Chinese, while other ethnic minorities include the Manchus, Koreans, Mongols, Hui, Daur, Xibe, Oroqin, Hezhenand Russians.
Harbin, the provincial capital, is a city of contrasts, with Chinese, Russian, and eclectic worldwide influences clearly apparent. Bukui Mosque, a national heritage site, is the largest glazed tile building in the province.[18] Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant churches dot the city.[19]
The long, cold winter is the backdrop for its famed ice sculpture exhibitions. In 2007 already the 8th Ice and Snow World opened to visitors in Harbin. More than 2000 ice sculptures were on display at the annual event.[20]
Wudalianchi Lakes are a series of five lakes formed between 1719 and 1721 when volcanic eruption shaped one section of a tributary of the Amur into five interconnected lakes. The second lake in particular is renowned for its irregular geological sights.
Lake Jingbo, in Ning'an County, is a section of the Mudan River that has been narrowed and shaped by volcanic eruption into a series of sights, including theDiaoshuilou Falls.
NanaiНанай, Нанайэ (Nanaj, Nanaje)Native toRussia, ChinaRegionSiberia, HeilongjiangEthnicityNanai people
Native speakers
1,400 (2010)[1]
Language family
TungusicSouthernNanai groupNanai
Dialects
Nanai
Akani
Birar
Samagir
Writing system
Cyrillic
Scholars in China have traditionally presented less fine-grained dialect classifications; An identified only two, Hezhen and Qile'en, the former referring to all varieties of the language spoken in Russia. He conducted his studies in Jiejinkou, Bacha, And Sipai villages in Heilongjiang; at the time of his survey in 1982, the youngest fluent speaker was 55, and the oldest 72.[9]
The Nanai language is taught in secondary schools in Russia, mainly in Nanai villages in Khabarovsk Krai.[citation needed] The duration of instruction and weekly contact hours vary; a standard curriculum used in 7 villages. Furthermore, in the villages of Belgo, Nizhnie Khalby (Lower Khalby), and Verkhnyaya Ekon (Upper Ekon), there is an experimental teaching programme in Nanaian language with a greater number of contact hours. Normally there are one to two contact hours per week; in different schools, the duration of instruction varies from 4 to 10 years, beginning from the first year. In the schools with the experimental program, the language is taught from years 1 through 9 with a larger number of contact hours.[citation needed]
Textbooks on the Nanai language, fairy tales, and artistic literature are used in Nanai language teaching. Sometimes teachers took the initiative to use oral folklore as well. However, there is a shortage of teaching and auxiliary materials, as well as difficulty in motivating students. Nanai language textbooks follow the model of Russian language textbooks aimed at native speakers, rather than emphasising instruction in the language itself, and in the theoretical/practical grammar. This model is not adequate for the situation of heritage language preservation. Moreover the existing language teaching materials are oriented predominantly (or only) towards the development of reading habits; however, the number of publications in the Nanaian language does not exceed one-two ten, mostly collections of folklore or artistic works of the historical-biographical genre, publishing in limited print runs. Instruction in spoken language is not conducted sufficiently and is not reinforced by teaching aids.[citation needed]
There is a large quantity of Russian loan words in Evenki, especially for technologies and concepts that were introduced by the Russian pioneers in Siberia. "Evenki is spoken in regions with heavy multilingualism. In their daily life the people come into contact with Russian, Buriat and Yakut, and each of these languages had had an impact on the Evenki language. Russian is the lingua franca of the region, part of the Evenki population is bilingual, and part trilingual. All Evenki know Russian relatively well."[33] In 1998 there were approximately 30,000 ethnic Evenkis living in Russia and about 1/3 of them spoke the language. Even a decade ago Bulatova was trying to warn speakers and linguists alike: "There is widespread loss of Evenki and the language can be considered seriously endangered".[33] According to the 2002 Russian census, there are 35,527 citizens of the Russian Federation who identify themselves as ethnically Evenki, but only 7,580 speakers of the language.[37]
In China, there is an ethnic population of 30,500 but only 19,000 are fluent in Evenki and there are only around 3,000 people who are monolingual in Evenki.[37] Juha Janhunen investigated multilingualism in Hulunbuir (northern Inner Mongolia) and the adjoining section of Heilongjiang (e.g. Qiqihar) in 1996. He found that mostSolons still spoke Evenki, and about half knew Daur language as well.[38]Furthermore, Mongolian functioned as a lingua franca among members of allminority groups there, as they tended to do their education in Mongolian-mediumschools. The only Evenki-speakers whom Janhunen knew not to speak Mongolian as a second language were the Reindeer Evenki (sometimes called "Yakut") in the northern part of Hulunbuir, who used Russian as their "language of intercultural communication".[39] Janhunen predicted that all of these languages, including Mongolian, were likely to lose ground to Chinese in coming years.[40] However Chaoke noted more than a decade later that the usage rate of Evenki remained quite high, and that it was still common to find Evenki-speakers who were proficient in three, four, or even five languages.[41]
There is a small population of ethnic Evenki speakers in Mongolia as well, numbering around 1,000.[37]
There is little information regarding revival efforts or Evenki's status now. In 1998, the language was taught in preschools and primary schools and offered as an option in 8th grade. Instruction as a second language is also available in the Institute of the Peoples of the North at Herzen University (the former St. Petersburg State Pedagogical University).[36] In the 1980s, Christian missionaries working in Siberia translated the Bible into Evenki and a Christian group called the Global Recordings Network records Christian teaching materials in Evenki.[42]
http://altaic-wiki.wikispaces.com/Korean+people
Recent genetic analysis on Korean with eight ethnics (Korean in China, Japanese, Han Chinese, Mongolian, Zhuangs, Malays, Javanese, and Soviet Asians) suggested that Korean have the common origin to central Asians, and Mongolian[3]. Genetic analysis on ancient bones in the Stone Age supported the origin of ancient Korean from Altaic mountain and Baikal lake[4]. Another genetic and archaeology study on ancient dead bodies showed that Korean and Mongolian were already separated in the Stone Age, and some features of ancient Mongolian similar to Korean disappeared during this time[5]. mtDNA studies showed that Buryats are closer to Korean than to other populations[6]. However, it can mislead to say that Korean were originated from Mongolian because Korean history is much longer than Mongolian one and Korean had existed long before Mongol identity was established. Korean have specific genetic type haplogroup A5 arisen 10,000 years ago. The broader genetic type haplogroup A of A5, evolved in central Asia between Caspian sea and Baikal lake, moved to Korean peninsular through Manchuria reaching Japan[7].
KoreanMost DNA studies consistently show that Korean are genetically closer to Japanese, Manchurian[8], and Mongolian, but distinct from Chinese. Some studies show some similarities between Altaic people and Northern Chinese rather than Southern Chinese, and it is the result of the history that Altaic people conquered and colonized China for a long time. Such DNA analysis should not be understood as Chinese influence. (Click here to see Altaic influence on Chinese
Korean language is classified as Altaic language with SOV, vowel harmony and agglutinative grammar. There are lots of archaeological and anthropological evidences showing Altaic links to Koreans. It should not be misled by lots of Korean vocabulary of Chinese origin (Hanja). They were just borrowed words[9]. Most of modern Hanja vocabulary were from Japan during early 20th century since Japan imported western system and culture 1st in Asia during modernization. Some Hanja words were created in Korea.
Physical characteristics
Typical appearance of Koreans is characterized by small and sharp eyes, a bigger head, lots of flesh on face, bigger body, shorter hands and legs, and light skin. These characteristics are consistent with northern people's style that was evolved to survive in cold weather during glacial period.
http://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/12/world/mongolians-and-koreans-twins-with-minimal-sibling-rivalry.html
Mongolians and Koreans are ethnically related peoples cut off by centuries of history. In the 13th century, Mongolians swept across China and down the Korean peninsula, and were on the brink of invading Japan until several naval disasters changed their minds.
Mongolia's occupation of Korea left linguistic affinities, shared genes and wild horse herds, known to this day as Mongolians, on the South Korean island of Cheju, the staging base for the frustrated invasion of Japan.
Today's bonds reflect, to some degree, the solidarity of two small nations living on the edges of a rising China. Commercially, Mongolia is an outpost for Korean business. On an ethnic level, Koreans and Mongolians are like fraternal twins.
NanaiНанай, Нанайэ (Nanaj, Nanaje)Native toRussia, ChinaRegionSiberia, HeilongjiangEthnicityNanai people
Native speakers
1,400 (2010)[1]
Language family
TungusicSouthernNanai groupNanai
Dialects
Nanai
Akani
Birar
Samagir
Writing system
Cyrillic
The Nanai language (also called Gold or Hezhen) is spoken by the Nanai people inSiberia, and to a much smaller extent in China's Heilongjiang province, where it is known as Hezhe. The language has about 1,400 speakers out of 17,000 ethnic Nanai, but most (especially younger generations) are also fluent in Russian or Chinese, and mostly use one of those languages for communication.[3]
In China, the language is referred to as hè zhé yǔ (Chinese: 赫哲语). The Nanai people there variously refer to themselves as /na nio/, /na bəi/, /na nai/ (which all mean "local people"), /ki lən/, and /χə ɖʐən/, the last being the source of the Chinese ethnonym Hezhe.[4]
The Nanai language is taught in secondary schools in Russia, mainly in Nanai villages in Khabarovsk Krai.[citation needed] The duration of instruction and weekly contact hours vary; a standard curriculum used in 7 villages. Furthermore, in the villages of Belgo, Nizhnie Khalby (Lower Khalby), and Verkhnyaya Ekon (Upper Ekon), there is an experimental teaching programme in Nanaian language with a greater number of contact hours. Normally there are one to two contact hours per week; in different schools, the duration of instruction varies from 4 to 10 years, beginning from the first year. In the schools with the experimental program, the language is taught from years 1 through 9 with a larger number of contact hours.[citation needed]
Textbooks on the Nanai language, fairy tales, and artistic literature are used in Nanai language teaching. Sometimes teachers took the initiative to use oral folklore as well. However, there is a shortage of teaching and auxiliary materials, as well as difficulty in motivating students. Nanai language textbooks follow the model of Russian language textbooks aimed at native speakers, rather than emphasising instruction in the language itself, and in the theoretical/practical grammar. This model is not adequate for the situation of heritage language preservation. Moreover the existing language teaching materials are oriented predominantly (or only) towards the development of reading habits; however, the number of publications in the Nanaian language does not exceed one-two ten, mostly collections of folklore or artistic works of the historical-biographical genre, publishing in limited print runs. Instruction in spoken language is not conducted sufficiently and is not reinforced by teaching aids.[citation needed]
In China, the Nanai (Hezhe) people use Chinese for writing. The number of speakers has been in continual decline for decades; by the 1980s, the use of the language was restricted to special situations and communication with family members.[14] In an effort to reverse this decline, a text book for Hezhe schoolchildren discussing the Hezhe language was published in 2005 (in pinyin transcription).[
An noted a variety of loanwords from Chinese in his survey, such as [ʐili] "calendar" from Chinese 日曆 (Pinyin: rìlì); a few also came from other languages, such as [pomidor] (tomato), almost certainly from Russian помидор, though the exact route of transmission is not attested and it may have been reborrowed from other neighbouring languages rather than directly from Russian.[21] There is also some vocabulary shared with Mongolian and the Turkic languages, such as:
[sal] ("beard"; Mongolian [sahɘl], Uyghur and Kazakh [saqal])[tœqo] ("chicken"; Mongolian [tahia], Uyghur [toχo], Kazakh [tawuq])[χonin] ("sheep"; Mongolian [χœŋ], Uyghur and Kazakh [qoi])
These too are likely loanwords, though proponents of the Altaic hypothesis may take these as evidence of a genetic relationship.[22] Conversely, the Nanai language itself has also contributed some loanwords to the Udege language, supplanting Udege vocabulary:
[banixe] (thank you), from Nanai [banixa], instead of Udege [usasa][dœlbo] (work), from Nanai [dœbo], instead of Udege [etete][daŋsa] (book) from Nanai [daŋsa], itself a loanword from Chinese 單子 (Pinyin:dānzi), which actually means "list"
A large degree of mutual assimilation of the two languages has been observed in theBikin region;[20] the Udege language itself only has 230 speakers left.[23
Khukh and Tengri literally mean "blue" and "sky" in Mongolian and modernMongolians still pray to "Munkh Khukh Tengri" ("Eternal Blue Sky"). Therefore Mongolia is sometimes poetically referred to by Mongolians as the "Land of Eternal Blue Sky" ("Munkh Khukh Tengriin Oron" in Mongolian). In modern Turkey Tengriism is also known as the Göktanrı dini, "Sky God religion",[10] Turkish "Gök" (sky) and "Tanrı" (God) corresponding to the Mongolian khukh (blue) and Tengri (sky), respectively.
The Turkic Sakha people or Yakuts probably settled in the area in the 13th and 14th centuries, migrating north from the Lake Baikal area to the middle Lena. From their new center along the middle Lena they gradually expanded northeast and west beyond the Lena basin towards the Arctic Ocean.
The name Sakha is of Turkic origin, "Saqa-Saha" meaning "Cue, Bat". The term Yakutis a Turkic word, a corruption of zhaqut - yakut "precious stone", referring to theRuby. The Sakha displaced earlier, much smaller populations who lived on hunting and reindeer herding, introducing the pastoralist economy of Central Asia. The indigenous populations of Paleosiberian and Tungusic stock were mostlyassimilated to the Sakha by the 17th century.[15]
Russian conquest
Main article: Russian conquest of Siberia
The Tsardom of Russia began its conquest of the region in the 17th century, moving east after the defeat of the Khanate of Sibir. Tygyn, a king of the Khangalassky Yakuts, granted territory for Russian settlement in return for a military pact that included war against indigenous rebels of all North Eastern Asia (Magadan, Chukotka, Kamchatka and Sakhalin). Kull, a king of the Megino-Khangalassky Yakuts, began a Sakha conspiracy by allowing the first stockade construction.[citation needed]
In August 1638, the Moscow Government formed a new administrative unit with the administrative center of Lensky Ostrog (Fort Lensky), the future city of Yakutsk, which had been founded by Pyotr Beketov in 1632.
The arrival of the Russian settlers at the remote Russkoye Ustye in the Indigirka delta likely also dates to the 17th century.[16] The Siberian Governorate was established as part of the Russian Tsardom in 1708.
Russian settlers began to form a community in the 18th century, which adopted certain Yakut customs and was often called Yakutyane (Якутя́не) or Lena Early Settlers (ленские старожилы). However, the influx of later settlers assimilated them into the Russian mainstream by the 20th century.
Russian Empire
1821 map of Yakutsk Oblast
In an administrative reform of 1782, Irkutsk Governorate was created. In 1805,Yakutsk Oblast was split from Irkutsk Governorate.
Yakutsk Oblast in the early 19th century marked the easternmost territory of the Russian Empire, including such Far Eastern (Pacific) territories as were acquired, known as Okhotsk Okrug within Yakutsk Oblast. With the formation of Primorskaya Oblast in 1856, the Russian territories of the Pacific were detached from Yakutia.
The Russians established agriculture in the Lena River basin. The members of religious groups who were exiled to Sakha in the second half of the 19th century began to grow wheat, oats, and potatoes. The fur trade established a cash economy. Industry and transport began to develop at the end of the 19th century and in the beginning of the Soviet period. This was also the beginning of geologicalprospecting, mining, and local lead production. The first steam-powered ships and barges arrived.
Yakutia's remoteness, even compared to the rest of Siberia, made it a place of exile of choice for both Czarist and Communist governments of Russia. Among the famous Tsarist-era exiles were the democratic writer Nikolay Chernyshevsky,Doukhobor conscientious objectors (whose story was told to Leo Tolstoy by Vasily Pozdnyakov), the Socialist Revolutionary and writer Vladimir Zenzinov, who left an interesting account of his Arctic experiences, and Polish socialist activist Wacław Sieroszewski who pioneered in ethnographic research on Yakut people.
Soviet era
On April 27, 1922, former Yakutsk Oblast was proclaimed the Yakut ASSR, although in fact the eastern part of the territory, including the city of Yakutsk, was controlled by the White Russians (see Yakut Revolt).
In 1992, after the fall of the Soviet Union, Yakutia was recognized in Moscow as the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation. Yakutia is historically part of Russian Siberia, but since the formation of the Far Eastern Federal District in 2000, it is administratively part of the Russian Far East.
Yakutsk (Russian: Якутск; IPA: [jɪˈkutsk]; Sakha: Дьокуускай, Jokūskaĭ,pronounced [ɟokuːskaj]) is the capital city of the Sakha Republic, Russia, located about 450 kilometers (280 mi) south of the Arctic Circle. Population:269,601 (2010 Census);[4] 210,642 (2002 Census);[10] 186,626 (1989 Census).[11]
Yakutsk is a major port on the Lena River. It is served by the Yakutsk Airport as well as the smaller Magan Airport. It is a major supplier of diamonds.
HistoryEdit
The Turkic Sakha people, also known as the Yakuts, migrated to the area in the 13th and 14th centuries from other parts of Siberia due to the rising military power of the Mongols. When they arrived they mixed with other indigenous Siberians in the area.[12]
Kate Marsden leaving Yakutsk in 1891
Russian Yakutsk was founded in 1632[7] as an ostrog (fort) by Pyotr Beketov. In 1639, it became the center of a voyevodstvo. The Yakutsk Voyevoda quickly became the most important Russian official in the region and directed expansion to the east and south.
Yakutsk did not grow into a city until the discovery of large reserves of gold and other minerals in the 1880s and 1890s. These reserves were developed extensively during industrialization under Stalin. The rapid growth of forced labor camps in Siberia was also a major factor encouraging Yakutsk's development.
At the primary and secondary levels, the city has a number of UNESCO Associated Schools, including the Sakha-Turkish College, Sakha-French School, Sakha-Korean School, and School #16.[16]
Sakha-Korean SchoolLocation42 Korolenko St.
Yakutsk, 677005
Sakha Republic[1]
InformationEstablished1994[2][3]PrincipalOlga Kimovna Potapova[4]30[5]Number of students280[6]Websitesakhakorea.yaguo.ruSakha-Korean SchoolKorean nameHangul사하·한국학교[7]Hanja사하·韓國學校
The Sakha-Korean School is a school in Yakutsk, Sakha Republic. It was founded in 1994[2] and in 2008 it enrolled roughly 280 students at the primary and middle-school levels (up from roughly 200 in 2002).[2][6]
HistoryEdit
The origins of the school go back to May 1994; a South Korean ethnographer doing research on the indigenous peoples of Siberia had been in discussions with the government of the Sakha Republic to set up a Korean-language school, and began to look for teachers in South Korea. Gang Deok-su, a professor of Russian at theHankuk University of Foreign Studies and head of the Sakha-Korea Friendship association, agreed to assist.[3][8] The Yakutsk Korean Association, founded in 1989, had previously set up Sunday schools for the teaching of the Korean language, but due to the increasing demand for specialists of the language, powerful supporters threw their weight behind the move to set up a full-time school, including president of the Sakha Republic Mikhail Nikolayev. Then-head of the Yakutsk Department of Education Evgeniya Mikhailova provided early local leadership for the project; the Sakha Republic government has continued to provide financial support to the school as part of its wider plan to improve foreign-language education in the republic.[3][9]Other early local supporters of the school included head of the Institute for Advanced Education Studies[10] Olga Chorosova and chairwoman of the Yakutsk Korean Association Vera Shamayeva.[9]
In 2006, the school established a branch in Aldansky Ulus.[11]
Roughly 250 students have graduated from the school since its founding. Its fifteenth anniversary, in December 2009, was celebrated in a ceremony attended by Mikhailova (who by then had risen to the position of vice-president of the Sakha Republic), minister of internal affairs Georgy Nikonov, and the South Korean consul-general of Irkutsk, Choi Seok-in.[12]
Among other subjects, the school offers Korean as a second language, taught by the native Korean teachers; teaching begins in the 5th grade, with three contact hours per week.[6] It is one of two schools in Yakutsk which offers Korean to young students, the other being School #16.[13] The teachers experience some culture shock at the different style of education, including the relative lack of age-based hierarchy at the school.[4] The school also introduces other aspects of Korean cultureto students, such as taekwondo, Korean music and Korean cuisine.[3] Japanese andChinese languages are also taught.[6] Each summer, the school sends about 10 to 20 of its students to Seoul, South Korea, on study-abroad and homestayprogrammes.[7][14] Graduates have gone on to work in a variety of Korean-related fields including translation and as language instructors at Yakutsk State University; others have earned places at South Korean universities for further studies.
Yakutsk School Number 16LocationYakutsk, Sakha Republic
RussiaInformationEstablished1940sPrincipalAleksandr DubininNumber of students700
Yakutsk School Number 16 (Russian: Якутская городская школа №16) is a state-run school in Yakutsk, Sakha Republic. It was set up in the 1940s. As of 2005, it had roughly 700 students.[1] It is a UNESCO Associated School. The principal is Aleksandr Dubinin, who has worked in the school for fourteen years; his wife, Roza Hanbeevna Dubinina, is also a teacher there. The school attracted negative attention in 2008 due to a video which a student uploaded to a video-sharing site during the summer holiday, which insulted several teachers there.[2]
School 16 is one of two schools in the city which teach Korean as a foreign language, the other being the Sakha-Korean School. They began teaching the language, along with taekwondo, in the 1990s. As of 2005, they had 127 students studying the language. The program has expanded due to the enthusiasm of Dubinina, herself a descendant of Korean immigrants to Russia and a former teacher at the Sakha-Korean School. In 2005, a delegation from South Korea visited the school and gave them Korean clothing and school bags as a gift, and promised to provide further funding for textbooks and for study trips to Seoul for the best students.[3] There are plans to employ a further teacher from South Korea to assist in the programme as well.[1]
대한제국 애국가
